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World War I (1914-1918)

Central Powers

  • A military alliance during World War I consisting of:

    • Germany

    • Austria-Hungary

    • The Ottoman Empire

    • Bulgaria

Allied Powers

  • The coalition opposing the Central Powers, including:

    • Great Britain

    • France

    • Russia (until 1917)

    • Italy

    • Japan

    • Later, the United States

Lusitania

  • A British passenger ship sunk by a German U-boat in 1915.

  • Killed 1,198 people, including 128 Americans.

  • The event fueled anti-German sentiment in the U.S. and moved the country closer to war.

Sussex Pledge

  • A 1916 promise by Germany to the United States to stop unrestricted submarine warfare.

  • Germany would only attack military vessels.

  • This pledge was later broken by Germany.

Wilson’s Pre-War Views of American Foreign Policy

  • President Woodrow Wilson initially sought to keep the U.S. neutral in World War I.

  • Promoted a policy of moral diplomacy that encouraged democracy and peace without direct involvement in the war.

U-Boat

  • German submarines used during World War I to attack enemy ships, including civilian and neutral vessels.

Unrestricted Submarine Warfare

  • Germany’s policy of sinking all ships, including neutral and passenger ships, in war zones without warning.

  • This policy was a key factor in the U.S. decision to enter the war.

Zimmerman Telegram

  • A secret message sent in 1917 by Germany to Mexico.

  • Proposed a military alliance against the U.S. in exchange for Mexico regaining lost territories (Texas, New Mexico, Arizona).

  • Its interception and publication outraged Americans and helped push the U.S. into war.

Home Front and War Effort

Committee on Public Information (CPI)

  • A government propaganda agency created in 1917.

  • Aimed to build public support for the war effort through:

    • Posters

    • Speeches

    • Films

    • Press releases

George Creel

  • Head of the CPI, who used propaganda to rally American support for the war.

Food Administration

  • A wartime agency led by Herbert Hoover.

  • Encouraged food conservation through voluntary measures like:

    • "Meatless Mondays"

    • "Wheatless Wednesdays"

  • Aimed to support the war effort.

Herbert Hoover

  • Director of the Food Administration during World War I.

  • Later became the 31st president of the United States.

Civil Liberties and Dissent

Espionage and Sedition Acts of 1917/1918

  • Laws that criminalized anti-war activities, criticism of the government, and interference with military recruitment.

  • Used to silence dissent during the war.

Eugene Debs

  • Socialist leader and vocal opponent of World War I.

  • Arrested under the Espionage Act for delivering an anti-war speech.

  • Sentenced to ten years in prison.

Schenck v. United States (1919)

  • A Supreme Court case that upheld the Espionage Act.

  • Ruled that speech creating a “clear and present danger” (such as encouraging draft resistance) was not protected under the First Amendment.

“Clear and Present Danger”

  • A legal doctrine established in Schenck v. United States.

  • Justified restrictions on free speech if it posed an immediate threat to national security.

Military and Wilson’s Diplomacy

AEF (American Expeditionary Forces)

  • The U.S. military force sent to Europe in 1917.

  • Commanded by General John J. Pershing.

  • Played a decisive role in ending World War I.

Quentin Roosevelt

  • Son of former President Theodore Roosevelt.

  • Served as a pilot in the AEF and was killed in combat in 1918.

  • Became a symbol of American sacrifice.

Wilson’s 14 Points

  • President Wilson’s 1918 plan for postwar peace.

  • Promoted principles such as:

    • Self-determination

    • Free trade

    • Open diplomacy

    • Creation of a League of Nations

Self-Determination

  • The idea that ethnic groups and nations should have the right to govern themselves.

  • A key principle in Wilson’s 14 Points.

Article X

  • A controversial provision of the League of Nations covenant.

  • Required member nations to defend each other in case of attack.

  • U.S. opposition to Article X led to the rejection of the League.

Treaty of Versailles and U.S. Rejection

Treaty of Versailles (1919)

  • The peace treaty that ended World War I.

  • Imposed harsh penalties on Germany, including:

    • Territorial losses

    • Military restrictions

    • Heavy reparations

Senate Refuses to Ratify the Treaty of Versailles

  • The U.S. Senate, led by opposition from isolationists and Republicans, rejected the treaty.

  • Concerns were primarily over the League of Nations and entangling alliances.

Irreconcilables

  • A group of U.S. senators who completely opposed the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations.

  • Rejected any form of compromise.

Reservationists

  • A faction of senators, led by Henry Cabot Lodge.

  • Willing to support the Treaty of Versailles only if changes were made, particularly to Article X.

Henry Cabot Lodge

  • A Republican senator and fierce critic of Wilson.

  • Led opposition to the League of Nations, arguing it would undermine U.S. sovereignty.

Post-War America and the Red Scare

Russian Revolution (1917)

  • The overthrow of Russia’s czar.

  • Led to the rise of the Bolsheviks and the establishment of a communist government under Lenin.

  • Fueled fears of communism spreading to the U.S.

First Red Scare (1919-1920)

  • A period of intense fear of communism and radical political movements in the U.S.

  • Triggered by labor strikes, anarchist bombings, and the Russian Revolution.

A. Mitchell Palmer

  • U.S. Attorney General who led a crackdown on suspected communists and radicals during the First Red Scare.

  • Known for his aggressive stance against leftist groups.

Palmer Raids (1919-1920)

  • A series of government raids authorized by A. Mitchell Palmer.

  • Aimed to arrest suspected anarchists, communists, and radicals.

  • Often violated civil liberties and resulted in mass deportations.