New Imperialism in the 19th Century

New Imperialism: Definition & Drivers

  • Definition: European control over Africa and Asia in the 19^{th} century via non-traditional imperial expansion.

    • Primarily through economic exploitation and investment, not mass settlement.

  • Economic Factors: "Gold" (Natural Resources & New Markets)

    • Africa and Asia offered: natural resources (diamonds, gold, rubber, cocoa) and untapped markets.

    • Driven by 1870s economic downturn, tariffs, and cartels, seeking markets for 2^{nd} Industrial Revolution goods.

    • Note: Not all ventures were financially driven (e.g., French in Sahara).

  • Non-Economic Factors:

    • New Nationalism (Jingoism):

    • 19^{th}-century nationalism became antidemocratic, associated with the far right.

    • Promoted fanatic loyalty and national superiority (jingoism: expanding national power at others' expense).

    • Imperialism: patriotic venture, extension of European power competition globally.

    • Racism (Social Darwinism):

    • False assumption of European superiority, seeing non-Europeans as inferior and fit for conquest.

    • Rooted in pseudo-scientific Social Darwinism (Herbert Spencer), applying Darwin's natural selection to societies.

    • Religion & Paternalism: "God" & "Civilizing Mission"

    • Belief in a "righteous thing": drive to "civilize" non-Christian/non-Western world.

    • Paternalism: Europeans believed they knew best for indigenous populations, aiming to "improve quality of life" through European culture.

    • Propagated through concepts like "White Man's Burden" (e.g., Pears' Soap ads).

Asia's Response to New Imperialism

  • Similarities (China & Japan):

    • Shared cultural features, Japan influenced by China.

    • Both forcibly opened to Western power, markets, and influence:

    • China: Via Opium Wars (1830s) with Britain.

    • Japan: Via U.S. Navy under Admiral Perry (1850s).

    • Both forced to undergo reforms to survive.

  • Japan (Meiji Era):

    • Modernization & Reform: Favored widespread education by 1868, emulated the West.

    • Sent observers to West, disbanded feudalism (end of samurai), established Western-style parliamentary democracy, adopted Western dress.

    • Created modern navy and infrastructure (railroads, public health, mass education for boys and girls).

    • Introduced scientific/technical training, beginning of consumer society.

    • Selective Adaptation: Restricted Western books promoting certain social scientists, promoted Japanese culture, managed Western influence.

    • Industrialization: By 1890s, had factories and exports.

    • Funded by high taxes on peasantry; women and girls worked in sweatshops.

    • Aggression: Military strength led to aggression.

    • Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895): Japanese victory, exposed China's weakness.

    • Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905): Defeated Russia, became strong regional power (first Asian power to defeat a European one).

    • Aggression continued into 1930s, leading to WWII in the Pacific.

    • Conclusion: Modernized without a revolution, unique experience of modernization without full Westernization, capacity to change constructively.

  • China:

    • Hesitation & Unrest: No clear-cut decision for reform (e.g., destroyed first railroad).

    • Marked by civil war and dislocation.

    • Western & Russian Encroachments: Territories occupied, reducing economic capacity.

    • Increased anti-foreigner sentiment; Boxer Rebellion (1900) was an anti-foreigner revolt.

    • Late & Incomplete Reform: By 1890s, began to come to terms.

    • Students visited West, Christian missionaries established schools, foot-binding declined.

    • Reasons for Lagging: More damaging Western encroachments, caught in stagnation, lacked Japan's history of imitation and ability to manage outside influence.

    • Sino-Japanese War (1895): Lost Korea and Taiwan to Japan, highlighting military weakness.

    • Boxer Rebellion Aftermath: Crushing indemnity, humiliation of foreign troops in Beijing.

    • Conclusion: Realized revolution was effective response; Confucianism subsided, giving way to a more revolutionary society.

United States Imperialism

  • Context: Acquired territory beyond continental boundaries in 19^{th}-20^{th} centuries, part of "New Imperialism."

  • Causes & Justifications:

    • Economic: Need for new markets for American products (e.g., China).

    • Result of 1893 economic depression (15,000 business failures, 17\% unemployment).

    • Strategic/Military: Alfred Thayer Mahan's "Influence of Sea Power Upon History" (1890) argued great powers need to control seas and commerce.

    • Desire for Central American canal (Panama) required ships and colonies for coaling stations.

    • Nationalism/"Manliness": American men wanted to prove national strength and their masculinity.