Japan

Encounters with Foreigners in Japan

Tokugawa Japan and Foreign Interactions

  • Despite a policy of seclusion (Sakoku), Japan had connections with the outside world through:

    • Trade: The Nagasaki system allowed limited trade with Chinese and Dutch merchants.

    • Dutch Learning (Rangaku): The study of Western knowledge, primarily through Dutch sources.

  • Some domains, particularly Choshu and Satsuma, pioneered the introduction of Western military technologies, such as munitions manufacturing, during the mid-19th century with British assistance. The Tokugawa shogunate (Bakufu) established contacts with France.

Commodore Perry's Incursion

  • July 1853: Commodore Perry commanded four “black ships,” two of which were steam-powered, arrived in Tokyo Bay, shocking Japanese leaders.

  • Gunboat Diplomacy:

    • The Americans destroyed several wooden structures along the shore to intimidate Japan.

    • Delivered a letter from President Millard Fillmore, inviting Japan to negotiate a trade agreement and establish relations.

Treaty of Kanagawa

  • Upon Perry's return in 1854 with a larger force, the Tokugawa government signed the Treaty of Kanagawa—also known as the Treaty of Peace and Amity:

    • Formalized diplomatic relations with the United States.

    • Granted coaling rights for U.S. ships and established a U.S. consul in Shimoda.

Establishment of the Bansho Shirabesho

  • 1856: The Tokugawa Bakufu set up the Bansho Shirabesho (Institute for the Study of Barbarian Books) to translate and study foreign literature.

    • Designed to educate samurai youth, it evolved from a prior translation bureau called Yogakusho.

The Harris Treaty of 1858

  • Harris Treaty (Treaty of Amity and Commerce):

    • Expanded trade access beyond Shimoda and Hakodate to Nagasaki, Kanagawa (Yokohama), Niigata, and Hyogo (Kobe).

    • Established treaty ports, allowing foreign residences and extraterritoriality with low fixed taxes on imports.

  • The treaty represented an unequal treaty similar to those imposed on Qing China post-Opium Wars; however, the absence of war with the West marked a difference.

  • 8.3 The Opium Wars and Their Aftermath

    • Western Trade Restrictions

      • Restrictions limited Western interactions primarily to the port of Guangzhou until 1757.

      • Trade imbalances resulted in substantial cash payments to China, leading to Western interest in opium as a trade commodity.

    • Opium Trade Development

      • EIC monopoly on opium sales leading to massive trade influx despite legal restrictions in China.

      • Lin Zexu's attempts to eradicate opium led to the First Opium War (1839-1842).

    • Treaty of Nanjing

      • Resulted in opening four ports and ceding Hong Kong to Britain, alongside significant reparations.

      • Continued struggles for trade balance as opium consumption remained illegal yet prevalent.

Social and Political Backlash

  • The end of the Sakoku policy ignited Sonno joi (“revere the emperor, expel the barbarians”).

  • Li Naosuke, a key official who signed the Harris Treaty, was assassinated in 1860 due to rising tensions.

  • Alternating attendance system, sankin kotai, was abolished in 1862, weakening the shogunate’s control.

Namamugi Incident

  • In 1862, British merchant Charles Richardson was killed by the armed entourage of Shimazu Hisamitsu of Satsuma Domain.

    • This incident triggered outrage among Europeans over the violation of extraterritorial rights.

    • The Japanese justified the killing under Kiri-sute gomen, a samurai right to kill for perceived affronts.

    • Resulted in the Bombardment of Kagoshima (Anglo-Satsuma War) in August 1863 when British demands for compensation went unmet.

Shogunate Campaign Against Choshu

  • Campaigns against Choshu exhibited initial support from other daimyo for the Bakufu, but neutrality was observed in later undertakings.

  • The Choshu-Satsuma alliance emerged, and together they successfully defeated shogunal forces due to longstanding anti-Edo sentiments after being subdued in 1600.

Yoshida Shoin's Influence

  • Yoshida Shoin of Choshu recognized the threat posed by Commodore Perry's arrival and sought to close the knowledge gap by voraciously studying Western science, technology, governance, and trade.

  • He inspired students, like Ito Hirobumi, to study abroad and adopt Western methodologies for Japan's defense against foreigners, which became a pivotal strategy during the Meiji Restoration.

Ideological Divide

  • The era was characterized by a political divide between pro-imperial nationalists (ishin shishi) and the shogunate forces, including elite Shinsengumi protecting the Bakufu.

  • The shishi movement was largely anti-foreign and anti-Bakufu, promoting the restoration of imperial authority.

Boshin Civil War

  • After the proposal from Tosa's daimyo, Shogun Yoshinobu abdicated authority to Emperor Meiji in 1867 while retaining significant power as a daimyo.

  • The Southern domains rallied under imperial command, contributing to the Boshin War (1868-1869) as Satsuma-Choshu forces occupied Kyoto and instigated direct imperial rule declarations.

Changes under Emperor Meiji

  • Upon Yoshinobu's resistance to imperial authority, he attacked imperial forces while securing the support of other southern domains (Tosa and Hizen).

  • Charter Oath (April 7, 1868):

    • Marked the start of Japan’s modernization efforts with calls for deliberative assemblies, knowledge acquisition, and cultural eradication of past evils.

Establishing Government Reforms

  • The three noble leaders from the Satcho alliance (Okubo Toshimichi, Saigo Takamori, Kido Takayoshi) devised a provisional government in 1868.

  • Major reforms included:

    • Abolishing the domain system in 1871, replacing it with bureaucratically centralized prefectures.

    • Implementing compulsory education and dissolution of the samurai class privileges.

    • Assigning rights to commoners and transforming samurai into administrators and entrepreneurs.

Military and Defense Reforms

  • Legal equality for all citizens was enacted, including previous semi-outcast classes known as eta (burakumin) constituting around 2% of the populace.

  • A conscript army was established in 1873 based on a French model under Yamataga Aritomo; this abolished military class privilege and created a modern military structure.

  • Satsuma led the modernization of the navy, influenced by British practices.

Socio-Political Unrest

  • Dissatisfaction among samurai led to rebellions in Saga (1874), Choshu (1876), and Satsuma (1877) under Saigo Takamori, advocating for the preservation of samurai traditions and governance virtues.

  • In 1885, the Council of State transitioned to a cabinet led by Ito Hirobumi as Prime Minister, marking the establishment of a more formal governance structure.

Cultural and Economic Policies

  • Fukoku kyohei (“enrich the country and strengthen the army”): A phrase from the Qin state in ancient China advocating for national development.

  • Bunmei kaika: Advocated for enlightenment through the reception of Western ideas, led by figures like Fukuzawa Yukichi, who promoted Japan’s cultural transition away from Asia.

  • The Iwakura Mission (1871-1873): Led by key leaders to renegotiate unequal treaties and gather insights into Western modernization practices.

Constitutional Developments

  • The Meiji Constitution (1889):

    • Modeled after German and Anglo-American systems; limited executive and imperial authority while promoting civil rights with legal boundaries.

    • Established a representative assembly, the Imperial Diet, with a hereditary upper house and popularly elected lower house—formation of a transcendent cabinet reporting to the emperor.

    • The constitution's ambiguity allowed for varying interpretations, either authoritarian or democratic.

    • Kokutai: Justified imperial authority based on the emperor's divine lineage.

Economic Strategies and Industrialization

  • Protoindustrialization: Seen during Tokugawa with rural industries and increasing commercialization.

  • Growth of domain monopolies and innovation due to market competition among regions, particularly in manufacturing.

  • Japan pioneered non-Western industrialization by promoting domestic industries, facilitated by:

    • Adopting a uniform currency (Yen) in 1871.

    • Allocating resources towards arms, heavy industries, and shipbuilding exclusively through state-led initiatives.

Land Tax Reforms and Economic Policies

  • Matsukata Masayoshi's reforms (1873-1881):

    • Introduced a monetary land tax based on estate value (3% fixed rate) replaced the previous tax from rice harvests.

    • This reform incentivized farmers to improve productivity while providing the government with revenue for industrial projects.

    • Policies promoted agriculture to aid the development of modern sectors.

Economic Crises and Banking Systems

  • Fiscal restraint initiated by Matsukata in 1881 during high inflation (Matsukata Deflation) stabilized the economy but led to land loss for many smallholders.

  • Established Bank of Japan in 1882 to manage financial systems effectively and rebound from crises.

Industrial Outcomes

  • Kogyo Iken, formulated by Maeda Masana in 1884, established criteria for selecting strategic products for economic advancement.

    • Resulted in agricultural output increasing by 3% annually over the designated ten years, expanding government revenue for industry development.

    • The period marked a pivotal turning point reflecting the emergence of the zaibatsu—powerful family-owned conglomerates due to government support.

Government and Zaibatsu Interactions

  • The government’s active role in sectors like tea, silk, and strategic exports contrasted with support for infrastructure investment.

  • Share of Japanese silk rose from 8.4% (1871-1875) to 33.7% (1896-1900) globally, at the expense of China's silk production.

Conclusion: Japan’s Economic Transformation

  • Japan's merchants strategically utilized the treaty port system to their advantage despite foreign challenges, ultimately leading to a significant economic shift from traditional trade practices to modern industrial activities.

  • The zaibatsu system, distinguished by familial connections and state support formed during this era, would play a crucial role in Japan's industrial landscape.