Exam 4

Diabetes Mellitus (DM)

1. Look (Observation & Initial Assessment)
  • Prediabetes: No symptoms, but elevated fasting glucose (100-125 mg/dL).

  • Type 1 DM: Sudden weight loss, polydipsia (excessive thirst), polyuria (frequent urination), polyphagia (increased hunger).

  • Type 2 DM: Gradual onset, fatigue, recurrent infections, slow wound healing, blurred vision.

2. Assess (Vitals, Labs, Symptoms)
  • Labs & Diagnostics:

    • A1C ≥ 6.5% (Reflects 2-3 months of glucose control)

    • Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG) > 126 mg/dL

    • Symptoms + Random glucose > 200 mg/dL

  • Complications:

    • Hypoglycemia: Shakiness, confusion, tachycardia, sweating.

    • Hyperglycemia: Fatigue, polyuria, nausea, headache.

    • Chronic: Neuropathy, nephropathy, retinopathy, cardiovascular disease.

3. Test (Diagnostics & Confirmation)
  • Blood Tests: FPG, Random Glucose, A1C

  • Urinalysis: Ketones (Type 1)

  • Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT): Used in pregnancy and prediabetes screening.

4. Treat (Medications & Interventions)
  • Oral Medications (Type 2):

    • Metformin (Biguanide): ↓ Liver glucose production (hold if contrast dye is used).

    • Sulfonylureas (Glipizide, Glyburide): ↑ Insulin production, risk of hypoglycemia.

  • Insulin Therapy (Type 1 and Severe Type 2):

    • Rapid-acting (Lispro, Aspart): Onset 15 min, peak 1 hr.

    • Long-acting (Glargine, Detemir): No peak, 24-hour duration.

  • Lifestyle Changes:

    • Diet: Carbohydrate counting, low-fat diet, adequate protein.

    • Exercise: 150 min/week, resistance training.

    • Weight management.

5. Educate (Patient Teaching)
  • Insulin Storage: Refrigerate unopened vials; opened vials at room temp for 28 days.

  • Complication Prevention:

    • Foot Care: Daily inspection, avoid barefoot walking, proper footwear.

    • Blood Glucose Monitoring: Frequency based on insulin use.

    • Sick Day Management: Continue medications, monitor glucose more frequently, stay hydrated.

  • Metabolic Syndrome: Risk factor for DM2; includes obesity, HTN, hyperlipidemia.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

1. Look (Observation & Initial Assessment)

  • Onset 20-50 years old, more common in women.

  • Progressive, degenerative demyelination of CNS.

  • Symptoms: Fatigue, weakness, numbness, vision problems (blurred vision, diplopia), muscle spasticity.

  • Relapsing-remitting course common.

2. Assess (Vitals, Labs, Symptoms)

  • MRI: Brain/spinal cord lesions (plaques).

  • CSF: Increased IgG, oligoclonal bands.

  • Evoked potential tests: Slowed nerve conduction.

3. Test (Diagnostics & Confirmation)

  • No single diagnostic test.

  • Criteria for diagnosis:

    • At least two inflammatory lesions in different CNS locations.

    • Symptoms at least one month apart.

    • Rule out other diseases.

4. Treat (Medications & Interventions)

  • No cure; treatment is symptomatic.

  • Disease-Modifying Therapies:

    • Beta-interferons: Reduce exacerbations, but watch for flu-like symptoms, depression.

    • Corticosteroids (methylprednisolone, prednisone): Acute attacks.

    • Plasma exchange (plasmapheresis): Severe attacks.

  • Muscle Spasticity: Baclofen (muscle relaxer).

  • Lifestyle: Avoid heat, fatigue, stress, infection.

5. Educate (Patient Teaching)

  • Energy conservation, balance of rest & activity.

  • Diet: High fiber to prevent constipation.

  • Exercise: Swimming, stretching.

  • Fall precautions due to muscle weakness.


Parkinson’s Disease (PD)

1. Look (Observation & Initial Assessment)

  • Progressive neurodegenerative disorder.

  • Classic symptoms (TRAP):

    • Tremor (resting tremor, pill-rolling).

    • Rigidity (muscle stiffness, jerky movements).

    • Akinesia (loss of voluntary movement, “freezing” episodes).

    • Postural instability (frequent falls).

2. Assess (Vitals, Labs, Symptoms)

  • Gradual onset, asymmetric symptoms.

  • No specific lab test.

  • Confirmed by positive response to antiparkinsonian drugs (Levodopa).

3. Test (Diagnostics & Confirmation)

  • Diagnosis based on history & symptoms.

  • TRAP criteria + response to Levodopa/Carbidopa (Sinemet).

4. Treat (Medications & Interventions)

  • Levodopa-Carbidopa (Sinemet): Gold standard.

    • Levodopa: Converts to dopamine.

    • Carbidopa: Prevents breakdown before reaching brain.

    • Avoid high-protein meals (affects absorption).

  • Dopamine agonists (Pramipexole, Ropinirole).

  • Anticholinergics (Benztropine): Controls tremors.

  • Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) for severe cases.

5. Educate (Patient Teaching)

  • Exercise: Encourage walking, stretching.

  • Fall precautions:

    • Walk to a beat.

    • Remove rugs.

    • Use chairs with arms.

  • Nutritional: Soft foods for dysphagia.


Myasthenia Gravis (MG)

1. Look (Observation & Initial Assessment)

  • Autoimmune disease affecting neuromuscular junction.

  • Muscle weakness worsens with activity.

  • Symptoms:

    • Ptosis (drooping eyelids).

    • Diplopia (double vision).

    • Difficulty chewing, swallowing, speaking.

    • Respiratory muscle weakness (life-threatening in crisis).

2. Assess (Vitals, Labs, Symptoms)

  • Edrophonium (Tensilon) Test:

    • Improvement = MG (positive test).

    • Worsening = Cholinergic crisis (need Atropine).

  • EMG: Decreased response with repetitive nerve stimulation.

  • ACh receptor antibodies.

3. Test (Diagnostics & Confirmation)

  • Tensilon test to differentiate MG vs. cholinergic crisis.

  • Electromyography (EMG).

  • CT/MRI to check for thymoma.

4. Treat (Medications & Interventions)

  • First-line: Pyridostigmine (Mestinon) (Anticholinesterase).

  • Corticosteroids (Prednisone): Suppress immune response.

  • Plasmapheresis or IV Immunoglobulin (IVIG): For crisis.

  • Thymectomy if thymoma present.

5. Educate (Patient Teaching)

  • Take meds before meals (to improve swallowing).

  • Plan activities in the morning (energy conservation).

  • Soft foods to prevent aspiration.

  • Emergency care: Recognize myasthenic crisis (severe weakness, respiratory distress).


Seizures & Epilepsy

1. Look (Observation & Initial Assessment)

  • Uncontrolled electrical discharges in the brain.

  • Types:

    • Tonic-Clonic (Grand Mal): Stiffening + jerking.

    • Absence Seizures: Brief staring spells.

    • Focal Seizures: Localized symptoms.

  • Status Epilepticus: Seizure >5 minutes, life-threatening.

2. Assess (Vitals, Labs, Symptoms)

  • Prodromal phase (warning signs).

  • Aural phase (sensory warning).

  • Ictal phase (seizure activity).

  • Postictal phase (recovery, confusion, fatigue).

3. Test (Diagnostics & Confirmation)

  • EEG: Abnormal brain activity.

  • CT/MRI: Check for structural abnormalities.

  • Lab tests: Rule out metabolic causes.

4. Treat (Medications & Interventions)

  • Antiepileptics (AEDs):

    • Phenytoin (Dilantin): Gum hyperplasia risk.

    • Carbamazepine (Tegretol).

    • Valproic Acid (Depakote).

  • For Status Epilepticus: IV Lorazepam or Diazepam.

5. Educate (Patient Teaching)

  • Avoid alcohol, fatigue, and sleep deprivation.

  • Wear a medical alert bracelet.

  • Safety precautions: No driving until seizure-free.


Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)

1. Look (Observation & Initial Assessment)

  • Chronic, progressive neurodegenerative disorder.

  • Symptoms:

    • Memory loss.

    • Difficulty with familiar tasks.

    • Personality changes.

    • Sundowning (worse confusion at night).

2. Assess (Vitals, Labs, Symptoms)

  • 10 Warning Signs: Forgetfulness, confusion, mood changes, etc.

  • CT/MRI: Brain atrophy.

  • Cognitive tests (MMSE).

3. Test (Diagnostics & Confirmation)

  • Diagnosis is clinical (rule out other causes).

4. Treat (Medications & Interventions)

  • Cholinesterase inhibitors (Donepezil, Rivastigmine).

  • Memantine (NMDA receptor antagonist).

  • Supportive care.

5. Educate (Patient Teaching)

  • Safety: Prevent falls, wandering.

  • Routine & structure: Reduce anxiety.

  • Caregiver support.

Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)

1. Look (Observation & Initial Assessment)

  • Common bacterial infection, especially in women.

  • Types:

    • Lower UTI (cystitis, urethritis) – localized symptoms.

    • Upper UTI (pyelonephritis) – systemic symptoms.

    • Complicated UTI – structural/functional problems.

    • Urosepsis – life-threatening.

2. Assess (Vitals, Labs, Symptoms)

  • Classic Symptoms:

    • Dysuria (burning), frequency, urgency, hematuria.

    • Cloudy, foul-smelling urine.

    • Flank pain, fever, chills (suggests pyelonephritis).

  • Older Adults: Atypical presentation (confusion, fatigue, no fever).

3. Test (Diagnostics & Confirmation)

  • Urinalysis (UA): +Leukocyte esterase, +Nitrites, WBCs, bacteria.

  • Urine culture: Identify pathogen.

  • Imaging (CT, ultrasound): If recurrent or severe.

4. Treat (Medications & Interventions)

  • Antibiotics:

    • Uncomplicated UTI: Trimethoprim/Sulfamethoxazole (Bactrim), Nitrofurantoin, Fosfomycin.

    • Complicated UTI: Fluoroquinolones (Ciprofloxacin).

    • Fungal UTI: Fluconazole.

  • Phenazopyridine (Pyridium): Urinary analgesic (orange urine).

5. Educate (Patient Teaching)

  • Hydration: Increase fluid intake.

  • Urinate frequently & after intercourse.

  • Avoid bladder irritants (caffeine, alcohol, spicy foods).

  • Prevention: Front-to-back wiping, no douching, avoid bubble baths.

  • Catheter care: Prevent CAUTI (early removal, aseptic technique).


Kidney Cancer

1. Look (Observation & Initial Assessment)

  • More common in men, peak age ~64 years.

  • Risk factors: Smoking, obesity, HTN, exposure to toxins (asbestos, cadmium).

  • Symptoms:

    • Hematuria (most common).

    • Flank pain, palpable mass.

    • Weight loss, fever, anemia.

2. Assess (Vitals, Labs, Symptoms)

  • 25% have metastasis at diagnosis.

  • Lab findings: Anemia, high calcium, abnormal liver function.

3. Test (Diagnostics & Confirmation)

  • CT scan (gold standard).

  • MRI, ultrasound, renal biopsy.

4. Treat (Medications & Interventions)

  • Surgical removal (Nephrectomy) – primary treatment.

  • Targeted therapy (for metastasis) – VEGF inhibitors, immunotherapy.

  • Radiation or chemotherapy (palliative care).

5. Educate (Patient Teaching)

  • Smoking cessation.

  • Post-surgery care (hydration, infection prevention).

  • Routine follow-ups for recurrence.


Bladder Cancer

1. Look (Observation & Initial Assessment)

  • Most common urinary tract cancer.

  • Risk factors: Smoking, industrial chemicals, recurrent UTIs, prolonged catheter use.

  • Symptoms:

    • Painless hematuria (most common).

    • Dysuria, frequency, urgency.

2. Assess (Vitals, Labs, Symptoms)

  • Evaluate for urinary obstruction.

  • Monitor for metastasis symptoms.

3. Test (Diagnostics & Confirmation)

  • Urine cytology (bladder tumor markers).

  • Cystoscopy with biopsy (gold standard).

  • CT/MRI to assess spread.

4. Treat (Medications & Interventions)

  • Surgical:

    • Transurethral resection of bladder tumor (TURBT) for early-stage.

    • Radical cystectomy for invasive cancer (requires urinary diversion).

  • Intravesical therapy:

    • BCG (Bacillus Calmette-Guérin) therapy to stimulate immune response.

  • Chemotherapy or radiation for advanced cases.

5. Educate (Patient Teaching)

  • Monitor for recurrence (frequent follow-ups).

  • Ostomy care for urinary diversion (if cystectomy performed).

  • Avoid smoking & carcinogens.


Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)

1. Look (Observation & Initial Assessment)

  • Progressive, irreversible loss of kidney function.

  • Main causes: Diabetes (50%), HTN (25%).

  • Symptoms:

    • Early: Asymptomatic or mild fatigue, edema, polyuria/nocturia.

    • Late (Uremia): N/V, confusion, pruritus, fluid overload, hyperkalemia, metabolic acidosis.

2. Assess (Vitals, Labs, Symptoms)

  • Labs:

    • GFR < 60 mL/min for >3 months = CKD.

    • GFR < 15 mL/min = End-Stage Renal Disease (ESRD).

    • ↑ BUN/Creatinine.

    • Electrolyte imbalances:

      • Hyperkalemia (K+ > 7mEq/L can cause fatal dysrhythmias).

      • Hyponatremia (fluid retention).

      • Hyperphosphatemia & hypocalcemia (bone disease risk).

3. Test (Diagnostics & Confirmation)

  • Urinalysis: Proteinuria, RBCs, WBCs.

  • Renal ultrasound, CT, or biopsy to evaluate kidney damage.

4. Treat (Medications & Interventions)

  • Dietary management:

    • Limit protein, sodium, potassium, phosphorus.

    • Calcium & vitamin D supplements.

  • Medications:

    • ACE inhibitors or ARBs (slow progression, control BP).

    • Kayexalate or Patiromer (for hyperkalemia).

    • Erythropoietin therapy (for anemia).

    • Phosphate binders (for bone protection).

  • Dialysis (GFR < 15 mL/min) or Kidney Transplant for ESRD.

5. Educate (Patient Teaching)

  • Daily weight monitoring (fluid retention).

  • Avoid NSAIDs (worsen kidney function).

  • Limit potassium-rich foods (bananas, oranges, potatoes, tomatoes).

  • Prepare for dialysis or transplant evaluation if needed.


Dialysis (Peritoneal vs. Hemodialysis)

1. Look (Observation & Initial Assessment)

  • Indicated for ESRD (GFR < 15 mL/min).

  • Peritoneal Dialysis (PD):

    • Abdominal catheter, can be done at home.

    • Slower, gentler than HD.

  • Hemodialysis (HD):

    • Blood is filtered through a machine.

    • Requires AV fistula or graft.

2. Assess (Vitals, Labs, Symptoms)

  • Hypotension, muscle cramps, electrolyte imbalances.

  • AV fistula complications:

    • Infection, clotting, steal syndrome (cold fingers, poor capillary refill).

3. Test (Diagnostics & Confirmation)

  • Monitor labs pre- & post-dialysis (BUN, creatinine, electrolytes).

  • Assess AV fistula (bruit/thrill).

4. Treat (Medications & Interventions)

  • IV fluids for hypotension.

  • Adjust medications around dialysis schedule (some drugs removed by dialysis).

5. Educate (Patient Teaching)

  • No BP or IV in fistula arm.

  • Report infection signs at dialysis access site.

  • Monitor fluid & sodium intake.

-Regular Insulin- 30-1hr to make sure they have food

-carbs for low blood sugar: 4-6 oz orange juice, PB, honey, syrup, gram crackers

-prevent UTI- hydration, Pee before intercourse, wipe front to back

-good peri care

-risk factor for bladder or kidney cancer- smoking

-clean catch- collect mid stream for urine culture

-retaining fluid: daily weights

-triptins- vasoconstriction (rebound headache)

-somyogi effect- blood sugar drops in middle of night and is high in the morning

-dementia and CKD—> progressive and irreversible

-after insulin is open → leave it room temp

-determine effectiveness of calcium carbonate for CKD→ check phosphate

-peritoneal dialysis → clear and yellow effluent

-expectation of carbodopa/levodopa → tremors (parkinsons)

-expected findings parkinsons - shuffling, bradykinseia, flat affect, rigity,

-Mysthenia Gravitas- check to see if they can swallow

-type 1 Diabetes→ first symptom anorexia, unintended weight loss

-common cause of tension and cluster headaches→ stress

-A1C of 8→ not controlled diabetes

-CKD progressing blood work increasing → albumin creatine, BUN increasing (GFR decreasing)

-risk factor for kidney cancer- Hypertension, diabetes, genetics

-diet recommendation: what do you like to eat?

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