culture and identity
High culture - cultural creations that have particularly high status, are superior to other cultural products or leisure activities e.g. shakespeare and classical music
Folk culture - cultural activities and products which originate with ordinary people and are rooted in pre indisutrial society passed down through generations e.g. folk singing and traditional storytelling
Low culture - cultural creations which have particularly low status and little worth e.g. products of mass media such as pop music
FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE ON CULTURE
Parsons
Socialisation and social control within society ensures individuals conform to value consensus (everyone is in agreement with society’s core beliefs)
Social control rewards individuals who conform and punishes those who commit deviant behaviour
Organic analogy - both society and the body are self regulating systems which must be in order to ensure its survival
Durkheim
Anomie - sense of normlessness when norms and values break down, leading an individual to feel alienated
Mechanical solidarity - high levels of social solidarity as everyone feels similar in traditional pre industrial society e.g. religion made everyone feel similar as it was a powerful influence where everyone had the same religious values
Organic solidarity - social order is still maintained despite more choice of beliefs in an urbanised world as people are dependent on each other e.g. specialised roles in division of labour
Evaluation
STRENGTHS
Explains why societies don’t break apart
Explains the process of socialisation and social order create cultural order
WEAKNESS
Exaggerates cultural consensus and ignores social conflict
Interactionists would argue that people shape culture not the other way around
MARXIST PERSPECTIVE ON CULTURE
Marx and Engels
Ruling class ideology - cultural ideas and values dominated by the ruling class
Institutions function to socialise societies members to accept ruling class culture and see their low status as normal
Bourgeoise use their wealth to acquire political and cultural power
Gramsci
Dual class consciousness - seeing through the ideology of the ruling class as the working class won’t passively accept that the are not clever or hard working enough to enjoy high wages and good working conditions
Adorno
Mass indoctrination of the population leads to a mass culture, where culture loses its authentic value of individual consciousness. Instead it has become a tool of social control and conformity into mass, racism ideas
Over strict fathers led to children developing an authoritarian personality who lacked sympathy toward the Jewish at the time
Marcuse
Mass culture was dumbing down culture by creating a one dimensional man
One dimensional man - individual who only thought about material possessions
This mass culture undermined though provoking art and political alternatives to the status quo
Evaluation
WEAKNESSES
Overemphasis on class inequality as the main reason for inequality, ignores ethnicity and gender
Assumes the working class are passive to the ruling class ideology
INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE ON CULTURE
Goffmans Dramaturgical Theory
Impression management - process in which people attempt to influence the perceptions of other people about a person, object or event by regulating and controlling information in social interaction
The interaction oder is an important part of society’s culture
Individual identification - when someone knows a person well and can define them as a particular individual
Categoric identification - when someone doesn’t know a person well and must understand them in terms of a category they belong to e.g. gender, class
Culture has informal rules governing social situations e.g. in urban setting people avoid eye contact or interacting meaningfully - individualist cultures
Cooley
Looking glass self
We imagine how we appear to others
Based on others reaction to us we determine whether others view us how we view ourselves
Use our perception of how others see us to develop feelings about ourselves
Through this individuals learn what is valued within their culture and this continuous loops develops morals and expectations in society as a whole
Becker Labelling Theory
He criticises others for accepting majority views by labelling someone as deviant
Culture of society decides who is or isn’t deviant as the majority labels the minority negatively
Master status - becomes the first thing you see about an individual
Deviant career - someone is labelled as deviant and therefore becomes deviant
Social Class and identity
Gramsci
Hegemony - dominance of one group over others
The hegemonic class influence society through culture, politics and economics which legitimatises class hierarchy and promotes ruling class norms as ‘common sense’
Restricts social mobility by normalising unequal access to opportunities and resources
Bernstein
The working class have an educational disadvantage as schools favour elaborated code which aligns with the middle class
Working class students may struggle to fully engage with the curriculum or express their knowledge leading to lower academic achievement
Outside of education the middle class will be better at communicating in situations such as interviews which gives an advantage in better career opportunities, perpetuating class inequality
Putnam
Bonding social capital - groups who rely on strong, close connects for support
Bridging social capital - groups who have access to diverse networks which can help access jobs outside of their immediate community
Charles Murray
Underclass - working class reliance on the welfare state keep people poor as they inadequately socialise their children to depend on the state and are more likely to join anti-school subcultures
They don’t choose to enhance their chances
CRITICISMS
Marshall - the working class is fragmented due to loss of traditional industries, modern working class is focused on individualism so they no longer have a shared identity so their disadvantages may be lessened
Savage - there’s 4 types of middle class (professional, white collar etc) which all have different outlooks and life experiences characterised by their economic differences so distinguishing between middle class and working class is too simplistic because they are varied within
Crook, Pakulski and Walters - in an increasingly globalised world people are able to create their own identities through consumerism based on their interests as material possessions are an extension of self which consolidates individual identity. Identities are becoming less restricted than in the past
Saunders - an individuals identity isn’t based on social class as we have freedom to choose our own identity, so its not passed through generations and social classes don’t exist
Bradley - social class identity has become weaker but there’s still polarisation between the poor and rich, not everyone can afford to be a consumer. Recognises there are other more important forms of identity such as gender
Jordan - poor people have the same views about work and life as everyone else, they didn’t choose to be poor and many want to work in order to gain dignity
Gender and Identity
Anne Oakley
4 processes of the construction of gender identity by the nuclear family
Manipulation - ways parents encourage or discourage behaviour on the basis of whether it’s appropriate for the child’s sex - more control of girls social lives when they reach their teenage years
Canalisation - ways parents direct children’s interest toward toys and play activities that are seen normal to their sex - gives children clues about expected future gender roles
Domestic activities - daughters may have cultural expectations about their future responsibilities which are enforced by their parents through insisting they help with housework
Verbal appellations - parents may reinforce cultural expectations by using stereotypical feminine and masculine descriptions
Canalisation is seen evident in the advertising of girls and boys toys
Supports Connell’s idea of hegemony
Connell
Hegemonic masculinity values control, power, toughness and dominance which avoids affection or ‘feminine’ behaviours
Men should all aspire to achieve this
Billington
The mass media traditionally portrayed masculinity as dominant and femininity as subordinate
Women have commonly been represented in a narrow range of social roles and low status occupational roles e.g in domestic settings
Young people consume this and internalise these roles into what will be expected of them in the future
Changes in Gender Identity
Mort
Metrosexual man - heterosexual males who are concerned with image so invest in perosnal grooming products such as skincare
Mac an Ghaill
Hegemonic masculinity is experiencing a crisis of masculinity due to the decline of traditional industries which ha led to low self esteem and educational failure so young males seek alternatives such as gang violence
The service sector has expanded which has led to gender neutral jobs
Wilkinson
Family commitments no longer have priority which has led to feminisation of the workplace as economic independence are a defining feature of young women’s identity due to female role models
Women are now seen as significant consumers so see consumption and leisure as part of their identity
CRITICISMS
Whelehan - questionable whether consumer freedoms allow women to choose their own identities or pressure them to confirm to patriarchal and sexualised identities
Walter - new forms of sexism are becoming a problem, new hypersexual culture - women base their identities around their heterosexual attractiveness rather than being a wife and mother
Collier - women are still objectified in the media such as encouraging them to perfect their figure for the benefit of men
Ethnicity and Identity
Ghumann
Identified aspects of Asian Identity - successful socialisation into a collectivist family culture
Social conformity - obedience and respect to elders and community
Religion - reinforces respect for family
Bi lingualism - the mother tongue is seen as essential in maintaining links between the generations
Modood
African Caribbean identity
Skin colour is an important part of identity due to shared experience of racial prejudice
Black pride is celebrated in reaction to deliberate exclusion from jobs or stereotyping by authorities figures such as the police e.g. notting hill carnival
Sewell
Male identity among African Caribbean youth - hyper male or gangsta in front of peers which may be due to lack of father figure or gang culture encouraged in the media
Peer pressure is extremely influential in shaping their identity
Johal
Second and third generation British Asians has a hybrid identity where they adopt a white mask to interact with peers
Bielewska
Identities among Polish people are based around consumption and brands so they aren’t much different to the identities of non-polish people
Young polish people also maintained close links to Poland through technology but still constructed an individual identity
Guibernau and Goldblatt
British identity was gradually created over 5 themes
Geography - Britain consists of islands which gave it distinct boundaries away from Europe
Religion - many people who do not attend church regularly still identify as CofE (Schudson - education teaching religious studies is compulsory)
War - reinforce an us vs them mentality where the British experienced exceptional hardship (Schudson - education teaches British pride through history)
British empire - success as an imperial power brought economic success and a sense of pride
Monarchy - heart of british identity (Schudson - national rituals and symbols such as watching royal family weddings or funerals)
Waters
The rise of the SNP gave Celtics legal legitimacy to introduce their own legislation which seperated itself from the rest of the nation has led more people to identify as Celtic rather than British
The british identity is also in decline due to globalisation such as the loss of british shops from the high street and the mass introduction of american culture e.g. mcdonald’s and Starbucks
Age and Identity
Biologically there are clear different stages of life which correspond to biological age and physical maturity but some sociologists suggest age is a social construct
Aries
Experience of childhood identity has changed overtime
In modern society children are dependent on adults to survive and for protection, emphasising a child focused family life which significantly contrasts medieval childhood where there was little distinction in status so children were treated as adults
Childhood is a social construct
Cohen
Media exaggerates the behaviour of young people
Folk devils - Mods and Rockers were labelled as trouble makers in the media which they then internalised and their behaviour worsened
The generational gap in the media is exaggerated due to moral panics where society is alarmed about deviant behaviour
Brooks-Gunn and Kirsch
Identified indicators of entering mid life such as grey hair, menopause, children leaving home and having more money for leisure
May lead to a mid life crisis
Sontag
Ageism - Theres a double standard in aging where women are required to be youthful through their media careers but men aren’t
Pilcher
The elderly aren’t given much status in the Uk as work is the main way to achieve status
Sexuality and Identity
Heteronormativity - acceptance in culture that heterosexual relationships are the norm and every other sexual relationship is abnormal and deviant
Much of the gay subculture emerged in the 1970s focused on consumption e.g. in gay bars in london and Manchester
Movements such as stonewall and gay pride marches sought to increase the visibility, social acceptability and changes in the law which made it easier for gay people to e open about their sexuality
Dorais
Many young men who attempted suicide as they struggled with their identity in a homophonic society whether they were gay or regarded as feminine - not conforming with hegemonic masculinity
Cronin
The idea that sexuality is something you are rather than something you can choose developed in the 17h century when a distinctive homosexual identity became established
Sexuality can be seen as a social construct
Lees
Women’s sexual identity carries risk of being labelled as a ‘slag’ if they are promiscuous because of the double standard that men are supposed to be promiscuous predators and women are supposed to be more interested in love
Disability and Identity
Marsh and Keating
Very few of us are really independent e.g. we are dependent on phones, transport, glasses
Social model of disability - disabled people are labelled as inferior as people assume disabled people are unable to function effectively without being dependent on a non-disabled person, excluded from full participation in society which may lead to poor self esteem
Watson - suggested disabled people may respond to this constant assumption with a personality which involved ‘learned helplessness’ where they rely on non disabled people for help
Finkelstein
Negative attitudes toward disabled people are a product of capitalisms emphasis on work as a source of identity, status and power so they become an economic burden
In pre-industrial societies disabled people weren’t treated differently
Wood - highlighted that in the media disabled people are rarely seen as being employed
Consumption, Globalisation and Identity
Parker
Work in the past determined the types of leisure activities people took part in
Upper class - networking, extension of work
Middle class - activities with family
Working class - drinking and pubs, removed from work
CRITICISMS
Too deterministic
Women’s unpaid housework means they don’t have leisure time
Rojek - leisure is less purposeful so is engaged in for fun and leisure choices are less determined by age, social class etc because societies are more plural
Roberts - leisure activities such as watching TV are found in all occupational groups
Clarke and Critcher
Individuals are manipulated by capitalise society to take part in leisure and support a stable society e.g. sport to maintain a healthy workforce
Most leisure is run by private businesses and is increasingly commercialised
Peoples choices are restricted by limited options
CRITICISMS
Braudrillard - we live in a media saturated society where the media creates desire and pressure to consume so identity is no longer predominantly formed by factors such as class, the media makes choosing identity free and easy
Bauman
Theres a divide in consumers into seduced and repressed
Seduced consumers - financially secure, knowledgable about consumption so enjoy it but they are in a constant state of anxiety due to the need to keep up with trends which makes society fragile
Repressed consumers - don’t have the means to participate in consumerism due to low income, insecure work
Committing to a single identity is risky business as identities are for wearing not for storing, people who commit are open for bullying
Cultural supermarket
PROCESS OF SOCIALISATION
Social control
Morgan
Socialisation is concerned with social control and encouraging conformity
Sanctions - parents reward socially approved bahviours and discipline deviant behaviour which develop the conscience of the child to eventually know the difference between right and wrong
Guilt is a deterrent which prevents deviant behaviour
Function of toilet training is to instil control over their bodily functions to be accepted into society as ‘civilised’
Elias
Socialisation has grown more influential throughout history
There are more cultural constraints in modern society than in any other age because people have become more dependent on one another so its essential that people get along
Books about manners assume ‘good manners’ are learnt through practice and imitation
Peer Groups
Handel
Peers groups among children operate differently to peer groups among adults
Children play a part in making rules rather than following those passed down to them by others
They are concerned with immediate gratification which may cause conflict between peer groups and adults
Peer groups among children aren’t passive, choosing whether to follow the rules of the adults e.g. teachers
Peer Pressure
Handel
Teenagers feel pressure to fit in with their peers as friendship networks put pressure on others to conform through gossip and bullying so changes in behaviour take place
They may also take part in deviant behaviour such as drug taking to be accepted by their peers
Young Adulthood and Peer Groups
Young adulthood is characterised by moving in and out of a variety of living arrangements, spending more time away from home than not
Sue Heath
Friendship networks are becoming increasingly important as agents of socialisation in young adulthood
Cote
This is because friends are a better source of knowledge about how to live life in their generation
Family
Functionalism
Parsons
The family is a personality factory where parents mold the child into the image of society, they are taught the cultural values and norms which leads them to believe they are naturally their own values
Marxism
Zaretsky
The family is used by capitalists to instil values that’s useful to them and ensures individuals can be exploited later on in life as they learn inequality and power is normal
Interactionism
Handel
Children learn skills that enable them to take part in socialisation
Ability to communicate and express what they want
Ability for empathy to understand the view of others as they interact
Ability to regulate their behaviour to give a good impression of themselves
Parents have the ability to socialise their children how they want but children also socialise each other in peer groups