The Politics of the Nineteenth Century

The nineteenth century is characterized by significant political, economic, and social transformations that led to the emergence of new nations and the decline of established kingdoms.
Despite the formation of new nations, many maintained traditional dynastic identities for political sovereignty.
- Eric Hobsbawm noted Europe's unique situation with multiple emperors related through dynastic marriages at the turn of the twentieth century.
Nineteenth-century politics illustrate struggles and compromises between varying ideologies and political movements, particularly between conservatives, liberals, and nationalists.
A notable revolutions took place in 1848; conservatives regained power afterward, utilizing liberal and nationalistic traits to consolidate their control.
The period of relative peace that characterized much of the century followed the Napoleonic Wars, which came to an end with World War I in 1914.

Following Napoleon's initial defeat in 1814, the major powers convened in Vienna to deliberate on reordering Europe post-conquest.
The Congress of Vienna, after interruptions due to Napoleon's escape from Elba, concluded in 1815 with a focus on preventing future French aggression.
- The Congress was dominated by the five great powers: Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, and later France.
Key outcomes included the restoration of Louis XVIII to the French throne and a refusal to impose severe penalties on France to mitigate the risk of revolution.
Goals of the Congress: creating a conservative order, restraining French ambitions, territorial rewards for victors, and suppressing revolutionary movements.
The Congress System, also called the Concert of Europe, emerged, aiming for peace and stability across Europe.
- The Holy Alliance formed between conservative states promising to quash revolutions.

The early post-Congress period experienced several liberal revolts despite conservative alliances.

Initial revolt resulted from King Ferdinand VII's refusal to acknowledge the liberal constitution established during the Napoleonic period.
1820 saw a successful liberal coup, leading to foreign intervention by France to restore Ferdinand to power under the Holy Alliance's auspices.
U.S. President James Monroe issued the Monroe Doctrine to prevent European intervention in the Americas, fearing impacts on former Spanish colonies.

The Decembrist Uprising of 1825 represented a failed attempt to establish liberal reform after Tsar Alexander I's death, resulting in repression under Tsar Nikolai I, who emphasized autocracy and orthodoxy.

Inspired by nationalism, Alexander Ypsilantis led an uprising in 1821 to achieve Greek independence from Ottoman rule.
Significant European support arose for Greek independence despite the official stance of the Holy Alliance against revolts.
Greece gained independence in 1833 after military victories by a coalition of European powers against the Ottomans.

King Charles X's unpopular policies led to revolts culminating in July 1830, resulting in his abdication and the rise of Louis-Philippe under a constitutional monarchy.
The July Monarchy extended the electorate, but its limitations highlighted the ongoing exclusion from political power for the majority of the population.
Louis-Philippe's regime eventually became increasingly unpopular and ended with the revolutions of 1848.

By 1815, Britain saw liberal conditions but faced issues like outdated electoral practices that spurred reform demands.
Major reforms in the 1820s, including the Great Reform Bill of 1832, expanded the electorate and improved representation, helping avoid a revolution like those on the continent.

A surge of revolutions across Europe seen as consolidating liberal, socialist, and nationalist goals against conservatism, beginning in France.
France's revolution in February 1848 led to the fall of King Louis-Philippe and the formation of a provisional republic.
Austria and smaller states experienced uprisings with demands for constitutions and confronting feudalism; the revolutions appeared poised for success initially.
The Frankfurt Assembly sought to establish a unified German state amidst debates over national identity and constitutional governance.
Internal divisions between socialists and liberals ultimately contributed to the downfall of revolutionary coalitions, particularly in France during the June Days, leading to violent repression.

Nationalistic fervor propelled movements for unification in Italy, previously fragmented among various powers.
In Piedmont-Sardinia, Count Camillo di Cavour aimed for expansion through diplomatic maneuvers and military mobilization against Austrian rule.
Giuseppe Garibaldi, a charismatic leader, contributed to the unification effort through popular uprisings, particularly in the south.
Despite the political gains, unification led to economic burdens and effective control over southern Italy that resembled colonial treatment.

Otto von Bismarck's Realpolitik steered the unification of Germany through calculated wars against Austria and France, wielding nationalism as a tool for political consolidation.
The victory over Austria and subsequently France in the Franco-Prussian War confident the formation of the German Empire in 1871 under Kaiser Wilhelm I after the captivation of the smaller German states.
The post-1871 period marked a shift in European power dynamics, foreshadowing tensions leading up to WWI as Germany's dominance altered the established balance.

The nineteenth century's focus on national identity highlights the transition from traditional dynastic politics toward modern nation-states.
The struggles of conservative and revolutionary forces vividly illustrate the complex nature of political identities that evolved during this period, laying the groundwork for modern Europe.