Spread of the Protestant Reformation (1520s–1530s)
Spread of the Protestant Reformation (1520s–1530s)
This period focuses on the spread of the Protestant Reformation after Martin Luther, leading to new Protestant denominations. The key question was the nature of religious authority and the correct interpretation of the Bible.
Foundational ideas unifying early Protestant reformers:
Sola fide: Justification by faith alone, not works.
Sola scriptura: The Bible, not church hierarchy, is the final authority. This allowed personal interpretation, leading to fragmentation.
Key Terms to Remember:
Protestant: Originally Luther’s followers (Lutherans), later broadened to all groups breaking from Rome.
Protestantism: Evolving term.
Lutheranism: Early form, following Luther.
The Distinction: Magistral Protestants vs. Protestant Sects
Magistral Protestants: Believed in a Christian state protected by secular authority (e.g., Luther, Zwingli, Calvin).
Protestant Sects: Broke more completely with church-state structures, emphasizing separation (e.g., Anabaptists).
Zwinglianism (Ulrich Zwingli, Zurich)
Common ground with Luther: Sola fide, sola scriptura, rejection of good works.
Key differences from Luther:
Sought to eliminate most Catholic liturgical elements; advocated for a minimalist church (four walls, lectern, Bible; no vestments, altars, stained glass, organs).
Focused on preaching/sermon and Scripture's primacy.
Eucharist debate: Major divergence.
Catholic: Transubstantiation (bread/wine become Christ's body/blood, conferring grace).
Luther: Consubstantiation (real presence of Christ in, with, and under the bread/wine, no transubstantiation).
Zwingli: Symbolic/figural (no real presence, no grace conferred).
Consequence: Luther and Zwingli separated, leading to distinct Lutheran and Zwinglian/Reformed traditions. Zwingli's movement later aligned with Calvin.
The Anabaptists: Radical Reformers (1530s)
Definition/Origin: A sect emerging from disagreements within Lutheran/Zwinglian circles, rejecting infant baptism.
Distinguishing features (sect vs. denomination): Sects are unified factions often separating from larger denominations.
Core Radical Tenets:
Rejection of infant baptism; emphasis on adult, conscious baptism.
Belief that religious reform should accompany social and political reform.
No oaths or contracts (literal interpretation of Matthew 5:34).
No class distinction; belief in equality.
Generally pacifists, though some instances were violent.
Social Base: Attracted lower social strata (peasants, urban poor, artisans) disillusioned with existing authorities.
Münster (1534–1535): Radical episode where militant Anabaptists established a theocracy, expelled nonbelievers, and burned non-scriptural texts. John of Leiden declared himself king of "New Jerusalem." It fell to a combined Lutheran-Catholic force, leading to brutal suppression and execution of leaders.
Legacy: Brutal suppression led to widespread hatred, but radical Anabaptist groups persisted, evolving into Mennonites, Quakers, and Amish.
Why considered radical: Challenged existing power structures through social/political reform, literal scripturalism, and rejection of oaths/loans, attacking everyday civil life.
John Calvin and Calvinism (mid-1530s onward)
Who was John Calvin? French by birth, associated with Geneva (Switzerland). A synthesiser who systematized Protestant thought.
Key work: Institutes of the Christian Religion (first published 1536), providing a coherent, logical account of Protestant belief.
Calvin’s role: Brought order, structure, and a rigid theological framework to Protestant thought; emphasized logical organization of doctrine.
Key points of agreement with Luther: Sola fide, sola scriptura, rejection of good works as means of salvation.
Five Major Disagreements with Luther:
Systematic theology: Calvin created a comprehensive system; Luther's approach was less systematic.
Sabbath and worldly conduct: Calvin viewed the Sabbath as strictly sacred (only church, prayer, Bible reading, rest); Luther allowed some worldly activities after church.
Church government: Calvin removed all Catholic remnants; Luther retained some Catholic-adjacent structures.
Church architecture/liturgy: Calvin (influenced by Zwingli) favored plain buildings and minimal adornment; Luther was more open to traditional liturgy.
Predestination: Calvin emphasized that God determined salvation/damnation before time. Predestined individuals are inwardly moved by grace to live upright lives; those predisposed to sin indicate damnation.
Spread of Calvinism: Expanded beyond Switzerland to France (Huguenots), Germanic lands, Holy Roman Empire, and Scotland.
Key Terms in Calvinism:
Presbyterians: Calvinists in Scotland/England.
Huguenots: Calvinists in France.
Puritans: Calvinists in England seeking further reform of the Church of England.
Impact: Laid groundwork for Reformed churches, influenced political/cultural alignments, shaped religious/social life.
Synthesis: Early Protestantism
Core Shared Doctrines: Sola fide, sola scriptura, rejection of salvation by works.
Points of Divergence:
Luther: Retained some traditional liturgical forms; more conciliatory toward political structures.
Zwingli: Minimalist worship, emphasis on preaching, purged Catholic elements.
Calvin: Highly systematic, strict Sabbath, simple churches, strong emphasis on church/state order and predestination.
Anabaptists: Radical strand, insisted on adult baptism, social/political reform, challenged state power, faced severe persecution.
Legacy
Religious fragmentation led to modern Christian pluralism.
Spread of Calvinism created new political/cultural alignments.
Emphasis on Scripture and conscience contributed to debates on religious freedom.
Anabaptist ideas influenced groups like Mennonites, Quakers, and Amish.