Susanna's Giant European History Advanced Placement (EHAP) Review Outline

The Renaissance

The Causes of the Renaissance

End of the Middle Ages: The Middle Ages, starting around $500\,AD$ , concluded around $1450\,AD$ .
City-States of Italy: While it began in Italy, the triggers for the Renaissance were consistent across Western Europe.
Influence of the Crusades: New trade routes brought Europeans into contact with advanced civilizations, influencing Western thought.
The Church's Decline: Scandals undermined the Church's absolute authority, leading to widespread doubt.
Rise of the Middle Class: Trade-generated wealth allowed for a philosophy of enjoying the present life rather than just awaiting the afterlife.
Competition for Status: Wealthy patrons competed in education and the sponsorship of artists to earn respect.

The Definition of the Renaissance

Rebirth of Culture: The term "Renaissance" is French for "rebirth." It refers specifically to the rebirth of Ancient Greek and Roman culture.
Humanism: This movement glorified ancient cultures and served as an essential element of the era.

The Four Aspects of Humanism

Intellectual Impact: Humanism was an intellectual philosophy that did not reach the masses initially but defined the spirit of the age.
Religion and Humanism: They coexisted. Humanists were generally religious but focused on the importance of earthly life, whereas the Church focused on the afterlife.
Four Factors: 1. Admiration and emulation of Ancient Greeks and Romans. 2. The philosophy of enjoying this life. 3. Glorification of humans and belief in individual potential. 4. Belief that humans are the center of attention.
Civic Humanism: A subdivision believing that participation in public affairs and government was essential for human development.

The Humanists

Petrarch (1304–1374): The first humanist; he viewed his contemporaries as barbaric compared to the moral examples of the Ancients.
Boccaccio (1313–1375): Author of The Decameron, a prose masterpiece in Italian. It was one of the first books intended for entertainment and realistic character portrayal.
Baldassare Castiglione: Wrote The Courtier, a manual for gentlemanly behavior and manners.
Guarino da Verona & Vittorino da Feltre: Educators who built a practical curriculum based on humanist ideals, teaching Latin, Greek, mathematics, music, and philosophy.
Marsilio Ficino: Part of the Neoplatonists who studied the ideas of Plato to show the dignity of the human soul.
Giovanni Pico: A Neoplatonist who sought to reconcile all philosophies under a single truth.

Renaissance Art

Characteristics of Medieval vs. Renaissance Art

Medieval Art: Lacked depth and perspective; usually lacked backgrounds; focused strictly on religious themes with unrealistic, static figures showing no emotion except piety.
Renaissance Art: Focused on emulation of the Ancients, depth, and perspective. Artists gained status as prestigious creators rather than just craftsmen.
Perspective Tools: * Linear Perspective: Objects appear smaller as they are further away. * Atmospheric Perspective: Distant objects appear hazier.
Style: Geometry, mathematics, detailed backgrounds, and the "Contraposto" posture (shifting balance) were used to create realism.

Notable Artists

Giotto (1267–1337): Famous for solid bodies and human emotion.
Masaccio (1401–1428): First to show nudes since the ancients; emphasized nature and three-dimensional bodies.
Donatello (1386–1466): Sculptor focused on the beauty of the human body.
Brunelleschi (1377–1446): Architect known for symmetry and building the largest dome in Europe since the ancients in Florence.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519): Master of technical perfection, angles, and background.
Raphael (1483–1520): Known for harmony, beauty, and serene ancient styles.
Michelangelo (1475–1564): Themes of strength and ambition in painting and sculpture.
Titian (1479–1576): Painted vivid scenes of luxury.

The Reformation

Short-Term Causes

John Wycliffe (1320–1384): Argued for simplification, less power for priests, and questioned transubstantiation. His followers were the Lollards.
Jan Hus (1369–1415): Claimed the Church was the community of the faithful, not just priests. He was burned at the stake, lead to the establishment of the Utraquist Church.
Avignon Exile and Great Schism: Undermined the Papacy’s prestige; people began viewing the Church as a fallible human institution.
The Printing Press: In the mid- $1400s$ , allowed new religious ideas and translations of the Bible to spread rapidly.

Long-Term Causes and Abuses

Power Shifts: Secular kings gained power while the Pope lost it.
Lay Piety: A movement toward personal ways of connecting with God.
Abuses: * Simony: Sale/purchase of Church positions. * Indulgences: Sale of forgiveness for sins (past, present, or future). * Dispensations: Payments to be released from canon law. * Incelebacy: Church officials marrying. * Pluralism: Holding multiple Church offices. * Nepotism: Familial control of offices.

Martin Luther and Lutheranism

Martin Luther (1483–1546): A monk who realized justification was by faith alone, not good works.
95 Theses (1517): Posted in response to Johann Tetzel's sale of indulgences; argued the Pope could only remit canon law penalties, not absolve sin for money.
Three Radical Pamphlets: 1. An Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation: Appealed to German patriotism against the Pope. 2. The Babylonian Captivity: Attacked the seven sacraments, supporting only Baptism and the Eucharist. 3. The Liberty of the Christian Man: Explained salvation by faith.
Diet of Worms (1520): Luther refused to retract statements before Charles V; he was declared an outlaw but protected by Frederick of Saxony.
Lutheran Doctrine: * Justification by faith alone. * Bible as the only authority. * Priesthood of all believers. * Consubstantiation (presence of Christ in wine/wafer without a miracle) instead of transubstantiation.

Appeal of Protestantism

Peasants: Liked the message of equality and simplified rituals.
Nobles: Stopped paying tithes (money stays in the country) and could confiscate Church land.
Middle Class: Individualism and the ability to interpret the Bible personally.

Other Protestant Sects

Zwingli (1484–1531): Believed sacraments were purely symbolic.
Anabaptists: Radical sects (like the Melchiorties in Munster) who believed in adult baptism only.
John Calvin (1509–1564): Believed in Predestination (God knows the elect before birth). He established a model community in Geneva with strict moral codes, outlined in the Institutes of the Christian Religion.

Centralization of Political Power

The English System

Local Administration: Justice of the Peace (JPs) were unpaid voluntary gentry who supported the king for status.
Lawmaking: Parliament remained subordinate to the crown but helped unify the country.
Judiciary: Common law based on judge's precedents rather than Roman law.
Henry VII: Strengthened the crown via the Star Chamber to bypass noble-controlled local courts.
Henry VIII: Broke with the Roman Catholic Church, annexed Church lands (Cromwell's advice), and established the Privy Council.

The French System

Administration: Departments included the Chancery, Treasury, and Parlement of France (court of law). Uses Roman Law.
Lawmaking: The Estates (representative assemblies) were less powerful than English Parliament but required negotiation for taxes.
Army: A standing army increased kingly power but required heavy funding.
Louis XI ("The Spider"): Re-established power by beating Burgundy and using diplomacy to annex territory.
Francis I: Gained control of the Church via the Concordat of Bologna (1516); passed the lit de justice (monarch can force legislation).

The Spanish System

Iberian Divisions: Castile, Aragon, and Portugal.
Ferdinand and Isabella: Unified Spain into a federation. They used the Inquisition (1478) to expel non-Christians and unify the state.
Administration: Employed hidalgos (lesser nobility) as corregidors (judicial officers) to replace high-ranking nobles in administration.

The Holy Roman Empire under Charles V

Charles V: King of Spain and HRE. He wasted Spain's New World wealth on wars against the Ottomans and the Schmalkaldic League.
Administration: Followed a federation model. De los Cobos expanded the council system, including the Council of State.

England in the 17th Century

James I and Charles I

James I (1603–1625): Believed in the Divine Right of Kings. Rejected the Millenary Petition from Puritans stating "No bishop, no King."
Gunpowder Plot: Catholic attempt to blow up King and Parliament.
Charles I (1625–1649): Absolutist who clashed with Parliament over money for wars.
Petition of Right (1628): Stated no taxes without consent, no billeting of troops, and Due Process (Habeas Corpus).
Personal Rule (11 years): Ruled without Parliament. Public opinion soured due to Archbishop Laud’s High Church policies and the Ship Money tax.
Long Parliament: Forced Charles to kill Strafford, abolish the Star Chamber, and pass the Triennial Act (meeting every three years).

Civil War and Cromwell

Phases: King vs. Parliament ( $1642-1646$ ) and Parliament vs. New Model Army ( $1646-1649$ ).
Oliver Cromwell: Military dictator of England. Executed the king in $1649$ . Suppressed movements like the Levellers (voting rights) and Diggers (communal wealth).

Restoration and Glorious Revolution

Charles II: "The Merry Monarch." Secretly signed the Treaty of Dover with France (convert England to Catholicism for money).
Test Act (1673): Prohibited non-Anglicans from public service.
James II: Declared himself Catholic. Fled in $1688$ when William of Orange was invited to invade.
Glorious Revolution: William and Mary became co-monarchs; accepted the Bill of Rights and the Act of Toleration.

The Scientific Revolution (1543–1687)

Pre-Revolution Beliefs

Authorities: The Bible, Aristotle (physics/teleology), Ptolemy (geocentrism/epicycles), and Galen (anatomy).
Mechanism: Early science shifted to asking "how" things work rather than "why" (teleology).

Major Discoveries

Copernicus: Heliocentric theory in The Revolution of Heavenly Bodies (1543).
Kepler: Laws of motion. Planets move in ellipses; they accelerate near the sun and slow down further away.
Galileo: Used the telescope to see Jupiter's moons. Developed the Theory of Inertia (objects in motion stay in motion unless acted upon).
Newton: Masterpiece The Principia. Formulated the law of universal gravitation and three laws of motion: 1. Motion continues in a straight line without force. 2. $\text{Force} = \text{mass} \times \text{acceleration}$ . 3. Action and reaction are equal and opposite.

Epistemologies

Empiricism (Induction): Francis Bacon; move from observation to general knowledge.
Rationalism (Deduction): Rene Descartes; "I think, therefore I am." Divided world into thought and reality.
Thomas Hobbes: Nominalist/Atheist. In The Leviathan, argued for Absolute Monarchy via a social contract to prevent a "war of all against all."
John Locke: Believed in tabula rasa. In Two Treatises of Government, argued for inalienable rights (Life, Liberty, Property), and the right to rebel if government fails to protect them.

Absolutism: France under Louis XIV

The Sun King: Ruled $1643-1715$ . Cardinal Mazarin put down the Fronde (noble rebellion) during Louis's youth.
Versailles: A palace designed to tame the aristocracy by keeping them away from their local bases.
Internal Policies: Revoked the Edict of Nantes to create religious uniformity (alienated Huguenots).
Advisers: * Colbert: Mercantilist; focused on navy and trade. * Louvois: Emphasized the army and land wars.
War of Spanish Succession: Conflict to get Louis's grandson on the Spanish throne; ended with the Peace of Utrecht (1713).

Eastern European State Systems

Austria (Leopold I): Relied on the Privy Council of nobles. Established the Pragmatic Sanction via Charles VI to ensure Maria Theresa inherited the throne.
Prussia (Hohenzollerns): * The Great Elector: Built an army to intimidate rivals. * Frederick William I: Obsessed with the army; made education compulsory. * Frederick the Great: Enlightened despot; conquered Silesia from Austria.
Russia (Peter the Great): Crash course in Westernization. Forced shaving; adopted Western technology. Built the Baltic window to the West after defeating Sweden's Charles XII at Poltava (1709).

The Industrial Revolution

Demographic and Economic Shifts

Population: Skyrocketed from $120$ to $190$ million during the 18th century due to declining mortality and better food supply.
Protoindustrialization: The "putting-out system" where merchants distributed raw materials to peasant homes.
Obstacles: Small markets, skewed wealth (aristocracy), guild regulations, and cultural attitudes (noble distaste for money).

Laissez-Faire Economics

Adam Smith: The Wealth of Nations (1776). Argued that individuals pursuing self-interest (the "invisible hand") would benefit the economy. Opposed restrictions on trade.

Why England Industrialized First

Geography: Sea access, iron, and coal.
Capital: Wealth from colonies and the Bank of England ( $1694$ ).
Labor: Peasants pushed off land by Enclosure Acts.
Colonies: Markets for goods.
Political Stability: Gentry in Parliament passed pro-business laws.

Technological Innovations

Cotton: The "take-off" industry.
Arkwright: Water frame (spinning thread).
Watt: Steam engine.
Agriculture: Charles Townshend (turnips/crop rotation) and Jethro Tull.

The Enlightenment

Philosoph beliefs

Reason, Skepticism, and Toleration: Use science and logic to fix societal problems.
Voltaire: Champion of English toleration; deist; hated religious intolerance and superstition.
Diderot: Created the Encyclopedia to classify human knowledge and change the general way of thinking.
Montesquieu: Spirit of the Laws; proposed checks and balances in government.
Beccaria: On Crimes and Punishments; argued for humanitarian penal reform.

Arts and Music

Rococo: Noble, swirling colors, light-hearted (Fragonard).
Neoclassicism: Dramatic, line over color, ancient themes (Jacques Louis David).
Music: Symphony development by Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven.

The French Revolution

Origins and Estates General

Louis XVI: Weak ruler. France faced bankruptcy due to debt.
Estates General (1789): Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly; took the Tennis Court Oath promising a constitution.
July 14, 1789: Storming of the Bastille by Parisian crowds.
The Great Fear: Peasant uprisings against nobility.
August 4: Abolition of feudalism and seigneurialism.

Radical Phase and Napoleon

Civil Constitution of the Clergy: Forced clergy to take state oaths; alienated the religious population.
Execution of Louis XVI: January 21, 1793.
Reign of Terror: LED by Robespierre and the Committee for Public Safety. Ended with the Thermidorian Reaction.
The Directory (1795–1799): Corrupt five-man executive that paved the way for Napoleon.

19th Century Movements

Romanticism vs. Liberalism

Romanticism: Intuition, emotion, rural life, and the Middle Ages. Nature is untamable (the "Sublime").
Liberalism: Reason, progress, urban life, and the Enlightenment. Nature is understandable via math.
Isms: * Conservatism: Tradition and hierarchy (Edmund Burke). * Socialism: Cooperating for public benefit (Utopian socialists: Saint-Simon, Fourier, Owen). * Nationalism: Regional identity and independence.

Revolutions of 1848

Began in France (overthrow of Louis Philippe). Swept Europe but failed due to divisions between Middle Class (moderate) and Working Class (socialist) revolutionaries.
Result: Lasting impacts included peasant emancipation in Prussia/Austria and the realization of nationalism's power.

Unification and War

Italian Unification

Leaders: Mazzini (the soul), Cavour (the brain/Prime Minister of Piedmont), Garibaldi (the sword/Red Shirts).
Victor Emmanuel II: Became king of a unified Italy by $1870$ after taking Rome.

German Unification

Otto von Bismarck: Used Realpolitik and "Blood and Iron."
Three Wars: 1. Danish War (1846). 2. Austro-Prussian War (1866). 3. Franco-Prussian War (1870): Led to the crowning of Wilhelm I as Emperor at Versailles.

World War I

Bismarck's Alliances

Three Emperors League: Understanding between Germany, Austria-Hungary (A-H), and Russia.
Triple Alliance: Germany, A-H, Italy.
Reinsurance Treaty: German-Russian non-aggression pact (let expire by Wilhelm II).

The July Crisis (1914)

Assassination: Archduke Franz Ferdinand killed in Sarajevo by the Black Hand.
Chain Reaction: Germany gives A-H a "blank check"; A-H declares war on Serbia; Russia mobilizes; Germany declares war on Russia and France; Germany invades neutral Belgium; Britain declares war.

Nature of the War

Stalemate: Trench warfare on the Western Front (Marne, Verdun, Somme).
US Entry: Turned the tide with fresh supplies.
Treaty of Versailles: Guilt clause for Germany; heavy reparations; demilitarized Rhineland.

The Interwar Years and WWII

Russian Revolution

1917: Tsar abdicated. Provisional government fell to Lenin and the Bolsheviks ("Peace, Land, Bread").
Stalin's Rise: Used the "Lenin Cult" to defeat Trotsky. Instituted Collectivization and the Great Purges.

Fascism

Mussolini (Italy): Black Shirts; March on Rome ( $1922$ ). Corporate State.
Hitler (Germany): Nazi Party. Rose via the Depression and the Enabling Act ( $1933$ ). Nuremberg Laws attacked Jews.

World War II

Appeasement: Neville Chamberlain gave Hitler the Sudetenland at the Munich Conference (1938).
Start: Invasion of Poland, September 1, 1939.
Turning Points: Battle of Britain (Air), Stalingrad (Russian Front), D-Day (Invasion of France).
End: Atomic bombs on Japan; unconditional surrender in $1945$ .