AP Psychology Premium 2025 Barron's Test Prep Notes

2025 Barron's AP Psychology Premium Notes

Barron's AP Psychology Premium

  • Test preparation for the new 2025 AP Psychology exam.
  • Includes three full-length practice tests with detailed answer explanations.
  • Offers online practice with a timed test option and scoring.
  • Provides comprehensive review and practice for all topics on the exam.
  • Includes expert tips, plus Barron's "Essential 5" things you need to know.

Dedication

  • Dedication to Kristin, Esme, and Guy and to Sara, Kate, and EIi.
  • Copyright information and restrictions on reproduction and distribution of the eBook.

About the Authors

  • Rob McEntarffer:
    • Taught AP Psychology at Lincoln Southeast High School for 13 years and Psychology at Nebraska Wesleyan University for 7 years.
    • Holds a Ph.D. in Education, a master’s degree in educational psychology and a teaching certificate in psychology from the University of Nebraska.
    • Has extensive experience scoring AP Psychology free-response questions as a Reader, Table Leader, and Question Leader.
    • Past chair of Teachers of Psychology in Secondary Schools, worked on National Standards for Teaching of High School Psychology, and involved in writing assessment materials.
    • Works as an assessment specialist for his school district.
  • Allyson Weseley:
    • Taught AP Psychology and ran a Behavioral Science Research Program at Roslyn High School for over 25 years.
    • Her students have a 100 percent passing rate with well over 80 percent earning 5’s on the AP exam
    • Holds an undergraduate degree in psychology from Princeton University, a master’s degree from Harvard Graduate School of Education, and a doctorate from Columbia University’s Teachers College.
    • Served as a Reader and Table Leader for the AP Psychology exam, published psychology-related activities, led teacher workshops, and served on the board of Teachers of Psychology in Secondary Schools.

Table of Contents

  • How to Use This Book
  • Barron’s Essential 5
  • AP Psychology Course and Exam Description
  • UNIT 0: SCIENCE PRACTICES
    • 1 History of Psychology
      • Psychological Perspectives Summary
    • 2 Research Methods Overview
      • Hypotheses and Variables
      • Validity and Reliability
      • Experimental Method
      • Correlational Method
      • Naturalistic Observation
      • Qualitative Methods
    • 3 Statistics Overview
      • Descriptive Statistics
      • Correlations
      • Inferential Statistics
      • APA Ethical Guidelines
  • UNIT 1: BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR
    • 4 Biological Bases of Behavior Overview
      • Genetics
      • Neuroanatomy
      • Nervous System
      • Endocrine System
      • The Brain
    • 5 States of Consciousness Overview
      • Levels of Consciousness
      • Drugs
      • Sleep
      • Dreams
    • 6 Sensation Overview
      • Energy Senses
      • Chemical Senses
      • Body Position Senses
    • Unit 1 Multiple-Choice Questions
    • Answer Explanations
  • UNIT 2: COGNITION
    • 7 Perception Overview
      • Thresholds
      • Perceptual Theories
      • Principles of Visual Perception
      • Effects of Culture on Perception
      • Extrasensory Perception
    • 8 Thinking and Creativity Overview
      • Describing Thought
      • Problem-Solving
      • Creativity
    • 9 Memory Overview
      • Three-Box/Information-Processing Model
      • Sensory Memory
      • Short-Term and Working Memory
      • Long-Term Memory
      • Levels of Processing Model
      • Encoding Memories
      • Storing Memories
      • Retrieval
      • Constructive Memory
      • Forgetting
    • 10 Testing and Individual Differences Overview
      • Standardization and Norms
      • Reliability and Validity
      • Types of Tests
      • Theories of Intelligence
      • Intelligence Tests
      • Nature vs. Nurture: Intelligence
    • Unit 2 Multiple-Choice Questions
    • Answer Explanations
  • UNIT 3: DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
    • 11 Developmental Psychology Overview
      • Developmental Psychology Research Methods
      • Prenatal Influences
      • Motor/Sensory Development
      • Gender and Development
      • Stage Theories
      • Cognitive Development
      • Language
      • Parenting
    • 12 Learning Overview
      • Classical Conditioning
      • Operant Conditioning
      • Cognitive Learning
    • Unit 3 Multiple-Choice Questions
    • Answer Explanations
  • UNIT 4: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, PERSONALITY, MOTIVATION, AND EMOTION
    • 13 Social Psychology Overview
      • Attribution Theory
      • Attitude Formation and Change
      • Compliance Strategies
      • Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination
      • Aggression and Antisocial Behavior
      • Prosocial Behavior
      • Attraction
      • The Psychology of Social Situations
      • Group Dynamics
    • 14 Personality Overview
      • Psychodynamic Theories of Personality
      • Humanistic Theories of Personality
      • Trait Theories
      • Social Cognitive Theories
    • 15 Motivation and Emotion Overview
      • Theories of Motivation
      • Hunger Motivation
      • Sexual Motivation
      • Social Motivation
      • Theories About Emotion
      • Nonverbal Expressions of Emotion
    • Unit 4 Multiple-Choice Questions
    • Answer Explanations
  • UNIT 5: MENTAL AND PHYSICAL HEALTH
    • 16 Health Psychology Overview
      • Stress
      • Positive Psychology
    • 17 Psychological Disorders Overview
      • Defining Psychological Disorders
      • Categories of Disorders
      • The Advantages and Disadvantages of Diagnostic Labels
    • 18 Treatment of Psychological Disorders Overview
      • Types of Therapy
      • Kinds of Therapists
    • Unit 5 Multiple-Choice Questions
    • Answer Explanations
  • 19 Multiple-Choice Test-Taking Tips
    • Overview
    • Test-Taking Strategies
    • Skills
  • 20 Answering Free-Response Questions
    • Overview
    • Article Analysis Question (AAQ)
    • Evidence-Based Question (EBQ)
  • PRACTICE TESTS
    • Practice Test 1
      • Answer Explanations
    • Practice Test 2
      • Answer Explanations

How to Use This Book

  • This edition is aligned with the 2024 changes to the AP Psychology curriculum and test.
  • The book includes:
    • Revised "AP Psychology Course and Exam Description" and "Overview of the AP Psychology Exam."
    • Unit 0 addressing the Science Practices essential to the exam’s new and greater focus on understanding research.
    • Vocabulary terms in bold aligned with terms in the College Board’s Course CED items.
    • Science Practice Skill 2 (Research Methods) and Science Practice Skill 3 (Data Analysis) multiple-choice items included with each chapter.
  • Multiple-Choice Questions:
    • The new test will include 75 multiple-choice items, each with 4 answer choices.
    • These items require a greater depth of understanding and ability to apply concepts.
    • All multiple-choice items will align with the new format and reflect the emphasis on the ability to apply knowledge and analyze and interpret data.
    • The chapter on "Multiple-Choice Test-Taking Tips" has been revised to reflect these changes.
  • Free-Response Questions (FRQs):
    • The revised exam will include two FRQs, but their format has been entirely revised.
    • A chapter explaining the new FRQs is included with an example and how it would be scored.
  • Practice Exam:
    • Contains a complete practice test representing the best approximation of the exams in the coming years.

Barron's Essential 5

  1. Psychology is a science.
    • Researchers use the scientific method to gather data and test hypotheses.
    • This replaces reliance on intuition or common sense, which often presents contradictory ideas.
    • Unit 0 describes data gathering and hypothesis testing in detail.
  2. Know the psychological perspectives.
    • Each perspective uses unique research methods, concepts, and vocabulary.
    • Knowing these helps in understanding psychological theories and narrowing down possible answers.
    • These perspectives are introduced in Unit 0 and form the basis for discussions in later units.
  3. Know your terms.
    • Psychological terms have specific meanings that differ from casual use.
    • For example, antisocial personality disorder does not mean shy or unfriendly but callous and unfeeling.
    • Multiple-choice items measure the ability to apply psychological terminology.
  4. Application is key.
    • The test measures knowledge of concepts and the ability to apply them.
    • Requires applying terms to scenarios and making connections between concepts.
    • Does not measure writing ability or creative expression.
  5. Use what psychology teaches you about cognition to improve your study habits.
    • Modify study methods based on research findings.
    • For example, distributed practice is more effective than massed practice.
    • Techniques like chunking, mnemonic devices, and context cues can improve recall.
    • The information-processing model suggests focusing on meaning, context, and application.
    • Take advantage of the “testing effect” (retrieval practice) by using practice questions.

AP Psychology Course and Exam Description

  • Comparison between traditional chapters and the AP Psychology Course and Exam Description (2024–2025 CED Revision):
    • History and Approaches maps to Unit 0: Science Practices.
    • Research Methods maps to Unit 0: Science Practices.
    • Biological Bases of Behavior maps to Unit 1: Biological Bases of Behavior.
    • States of Consciousness maps to Unit 1: Biological Bases of Behavior.
    • Sensation and Perception maps to Unit 2: Cognition.
    • Cognition maps to Unit 2: Cognition.
    • Testing and Individual Differences maps to Unit 2: Cognition.
    • Developmental maps to Unit 3: Development and Learning.
    • Learning maps to Unit 3: Development and Learning.
    • Motivation and Emotion maps to Unit 4: Social Psychology and Personality
    • Personality maps to Unit 4: Social Psychology and Personality
    • Social maps to Unit 5: Mental and Physical Health
    • Disorders maps to Unit 5: Mental and Physical Health
    • Treatment maps to Unit 5: Mental and Physical Health
  • Emphasizes information needed for success on the AP Psychology exam.
  • Highlights important theories and ideas, conveyed by Tips in the text.
  • Terms from the College Board’s AP Psychology Course and Exam Description are in bold.

Science Practices

  • Multiple-choice items are keyed to one of three science practices.
    • Science Practice 1: Concept Application
      • Ability to USE concepts, theories, terms, perspectives, and other ideas.
      • Items require using knowledge rather than just recalling it.
      • Emphasis on examples and applications; students should create their own examples.
      • About 65% of multiple-choice items are concept application items.
    • Science Practice 2: Research Methods and Design
      • Understanding of how psychological researchers design research studies.
      • Covered in Unit 0, “Science Practices.”
      • About 25% of multiple-choice items are research methods items.
    • Science Practice 3: Data Interpretation
      • Analyzing quantitative data.
      • Using statistical methods and techniques.
      • About 10% of multiple-choice items are data interpretation items.
    • Science Practice 4: Argumentation
      • Measured by only one of the free-response questions, not the multiple-choice questions.

Practice Questions, Test Tips, and Practice Exams

  • Multiple-choice practice questions and explanations are provided at the end of each unit other than Unit 0.
  • "Multiple-Choice Test-Taking Tips” chapter to reflect multiple-choice questions.
  • "Answering the Free-Response Questions” chapter to free response questions.
Using Psychology to Study Psychology
  • Three principles can be used to make studying more efficient:
    • Distributed Practice
    • Depth of Processing
    • Retrieval Practice
Distributed Practice
  • Distributing studying over time is more effective than cramming.
  • Start planning AP Psychology practice well in advance of the exam.
  • Schedule shorter study sessions for each unit of the book.
Depth of Processing
  • Encoding the meaning of terms and applying ideas in realistic examples is deep processing.
  • Relate theories, terms, and perspectives to personal life.
  • Personalize terms and examples to increase memorization.
  • Deeply processed information is more likely to be encoded into long-term memory and reduce time spent studying.
Retrieval Practice
  • Using retrieval practice means testing to see what was encoded based on what was just read or studied.
  • Interrupt studying with frequent small quizzes is very effective.
  • Answer questions without looking back at the text or ahead at the answers.
  • Taking tests and thinking about answers will help learn and remember ideas long term.

Overview of the AP Psychology Exam

  • Two parts: multiple-choice and free-response.
  • Total time: 2 hours and 40 minutes.

Multiple-Choice

  • 75 four-choice questions (A to D).
  • Time: 90 minutes.
  • Score based on the number of questions answered correctly; no points deducted for incorrect answers.
  • Answer every question; never leave one or more blank.

Free-Response

  • Two questions: Article Analysis Question (AAQ) and Evidence-Based Question (EBQ).
  • Time: 70 minutes total (25 for AAQ and 45 for EBQ).
  • No choice of topics; must answer both questions.
  • Tips for answering AAQ and EBQ are important (as well as experience to understand what the questions are asking of you).

Scoring

  • Composite score ranges from 1 to 5.
  • Multiple-choice counts twice as much as free-response.
    • Multiple-choice: weighted 66.7%.
    • Free-response: weighted 33.3%.

UNIT 0 Science Practices

  • Focuses on current psychological perspectives and the research methods used to gather data about human thinking and behavior.
  • Content from history and research methods chapters in textbooks.
  • Research methods concepts are important throughout the curriculum.
  • Students need to apply research methods concepts to answer multiple-choice questions from each unit and in the free-response questions

1 History of Psychology

Learning Objectives
  • Psychological perspectives
Psychological Perspectives

Psychologists look at thought and behavior from different perspectives, falling into eight broad categories:

  1. Humanist Perspective:
    • Emphasizes individual choice and free will (Maslow, Rogers).
    • Contrasts with deterministic behaviorism.
    • Behaviors guided by physiological, emotional, or spiritual needs.
    • Not easily tested by scientific method; viewed as more historical than current.
  2. Psychodynamic Perspective:
    • Believes the unconscious mind controls much of thought and action.
    • Looks for impulses or memories pushed into the unconscious mind through repression.
    • Examines the unconscious mind through dream analysis, word association, and other psychoanalytic therapy techniques.
  3. Biopsychology (or Neuroscience) Perspective:
    • Explains thought and behavior in terms of biological processes.
    • May be caused by genes, hormones, and neurotransmitters in the brain.
  4. Evolutionary (or Darwinian) Perspective:
    • Also calls sociobiology.
    • Examines thought and actions in terms of natural selection.
    • Advantageous traits for survival are passed down.
  5. Behavioral Perspective:
    • Explains thought and behavior in terms of conditioning.
    • Looks at observable behaviors and responses to stimuli.
    • Extroversion in terms of reward and punishment related to being outgoing vs. withdrawing.
  6. Cognitive Perspective:
    • Examines thought and behavior in terms of how we interpret, process, and remember events.
    • Focuses on the rules that we use to view the world.
    • Extroversion is based on how an individual interprets social situations making being outgoing make sense.
  7. Social-Cultural (or Sociocultural) Perspective:
    • Looks at how thoughts and behaviors vary among cultures.
    • Emphasizes cultural influence on thinking and acting.
    • Extroversion is based on cultural norms, rules about social interactions, and the value placed on group versus individual identity.
  8. Biopsychosocial Perspective:
    • Integrates biological, psychological, and social factors which creates a more broader view of one's perspective.
    • Views other perspectives as reductionistic.
    • Extroversion focuses on genetic tendency, conditioning, and social pressures.
Summary
  • Each perspective has explanations depending on the situation, called eclectic.
  • No one perspective has all the answers.
  • Psychologists use various perspectives depending on fits best with the explanation.
  • Some perspectives may be combined, or new ones may emerge as research continues.

2 Research Methods

Learning Objectives
  • Experimental method
  • Correlational method
  • Naturalistic observation
  • Case studies
Key Terms
  • Hindsight bias
  • Confirmation bias
  • Overconfidence
  • Quantitative research
  • Qualitative research
  • Hypothesis
  • Dependent variable
  • Independent variable
  • Falsifiable
  • Operational definitions
  • Replicated
  • Sample
  • Population
  • Representative sample
  • Random sampling
  • Convenience sampling
  • Generalize
  • Stratified sampling
  • Confounding variables
  • Random assignment
  • Experimenter bias
  • Double-blind study
  • Single-blind study
  • Social desirability bias
  • Experimental group
  • Control group
  • Placebo method
  • Placebo effect
  • Positive correlation
  • Negative correlation
  • Study
  • Likert scales
  • Directionality problem
  • Third variable
  • Naturalistic observation
  • Structured interview
  • Case study
Overview
  • Psychology is a science based on research.
  • Intuition can mislead; scientific research aims to predict events in advance.
  • People suffer from confirmation bias and overconfidence.
Hypotheses and Variables
  • Psychologists conduct research to solve practical problems (applied research) or explore questions of interest without immediate application (basic research).
  • Research can be quantitative (numerical measures) or qualitative (complex textual responses).
  • Research is often guided by hypotheses expressing relationships between variables.
Variables
  • Independent variable (manipulated) and dependent variable (measured).
  • Hypotheses often grow out of theories.
  • Hypotheses must be falsifiable.
  • Variables require operational definitions, which explain how they will be measured.
Validity and Reliability
  • Good research is valid (measures what it intends to measure) and reliable (consistent, and can be replicated).
Sampling
  • Participants are selected from a population.
  • Goal is a representative sample.
  • Random sampling ensures every member has an equal chance of being selected.
  • Convenience sampling collects data from easily accessible people.
  • Stratified sampling ensures the sample represents the population on some criteria.
Selecting a sample randomly maximizes the chance that the sample will represent the population from which it was drawn and allows researchers to draw generalizations about the population based on their findings about the sample.
Experimental Method
  • Experiments can be laboratory experiments (controlled environment) or field experiments (more realistic).
  • Experiments show a causal relationship by manipulating the independent variable and controlling for confounding variables.
Students often equate all research with experiments. As described in the text, many kinds of research can be conducted, but only experiments can identify cause and effect.

  • Assignment:

    • Participants are given a group either a experimental or control

  • Random assignment:

    • limits the effect of participant-relevant confounding variables.

  • **Random assignment controls for participant-relevant confounding variables.

  • Situation-relevant confounding variables:

    • Controlled by making the environments into which the two groups are placed as similar as possible controls

  • Experimenter bias:

    • Is the unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups differently to increase the chance of confirming the researchers' hypothesis
    • It can be eliminated by using a double-blind procedure where participants are unaware when they have been assigned. If it's only the participant it's called a single-blind study.

  • Control:

    • Achieved using experimental group (treatment group) or a control group (no treatment group);
    • Hawthorne effect- effect of merely selecting a group and conducting experiment.
    • Control created by Placebo method- inert but otherwise identical substance to experimental to separate physiological effects.
    • Counterbalancing method helps experiment by controlling as their own.
Students sometimes believe that using a control group is the only possible method of control. Remember that although it is an extremely important and obviously named type of control, using control groups is but one of many such methods.
Correlational Method
  • Expresses a relationship between two variables without ascribing cause; it can be positive or negative.
  • Quasi-experimental (ex post facto) where participants are not randomly assigned.
  • Surveys commonly use Likert scales.
  • Directionally and third variable is where variables cannot conclude that one of the variables causes other.
Students often confuse the use of surveys to measure the dependent variable in an experiment with the survey method. Although surveys can be used as part of the experimental method, the survey method, as described, is a kind of correlational research in which the researcher does not manipulate the independent variable.
Naturalistic Observation
  • Observing participants in their natural habitats without interacting with them.
  • Aim for realistic and rich picture of behavior.
TIP Students often confuse naturalistic observation with field experiments. Both involve doing research out in the world. However, in naturalistic observation, the researchers do not impact the behavior of the participants at all. In contrast, in field experiments, as in all experiments, the researcher manipulates the independent variable and attempts to eliminate as many confounding variables as possible.
Qualitative Methods
  • Use open-ended survey questions, interviews, focus groups, and case studies.
  • Interviews can structured, unstructured; case studies get detailed picture of one participant.

3 Statistics

Learning Objectives
  • Descriptive statistics
  • Correlations
  • Inferential statistics
  • APA Ethical Guidelines
Key Terms
  • Central tendency
  • Mean
  • Median
  • Mode
  • Bimodal
  • Positively skewed
  • Negatively skewed
  • Range
  • Variance
  • Standard deviation
  • Normal curve
  • Percentiles
  • Correlation
  • Correlation coefficient
  • Scatterplot
  • Statistically significant
  • Effect size
  • Replication
  • Meta-analysis
  • Peer review
  • No coercion
  • Informed consent
  • Deception
  • Informed assent
  • Confidentiality
  • Risk
  • Protection from harm
  • Debriefing
Overview
  • Content in this chapter is relevant to one of the skills the College Board identified to be measured on the AP Psychology test. Specifically, in this section, you will learn about what the College Board calls Science Practice 3—Data Analysis: understanding and making inferences based on numerical data.
Descriptive Statistics
  • Frequency distribution - how many students had dogs, cats, etc.
  • Frequency polygons (line graphs) or bar graphs known as histograms. Measures of central tendency attempt to mark the center of a distribution:
    • Mean:
      • Add all scores then divide by the number of scores
    • Median:
      • List scores from ascending or descending order. Median is central unless there is an even number where you add the two and divide by two.
    • Mode:
      • Score that appears most frequently. If there is two the distritution is called bimodal.
  • Symmetrical mean symmetrical otherwise it is skewed due to outliers resulting in high scores (or low scores) making distribution positively skewedor negatively skewed.
  • Measures of variability depict the diversity of the distribution by:
    • Range - highest-Lowest Score
    • Variance and standard deviation - the higher each is depicts a higher the more spread out the distribution
  • With z-scores measuring the distance of a score from the mean is measured in units of standard deviation. Score below mean equals negative and above is positive.
  • The normal curve is a theoretical bell shaped where predetermined area falls between two z-scores.
  • Percentiles simply measure distance from 0 on a test and the higher they are demonstrates the closer the score is to 0.
Correlations
  • Measures the relationship between two variables through either positive and negative correlation.
  • Correlation coefficient ranges from −1-1 to +1+1, where −1-1 is a perfect negative correlation and +1+1 is a perfect positive correlation. Both −1-1 and +1+1 denote equally strong correlations, while 00 denotes the weakest possible correlation-no correlation.
  • Correlations are graphed using a scatterplot, which graphs pairs of values.
    Inferential
  • Statistics help determine whether findings can be applied to the larger population sample was selected
  • The extent to which the difference of the sample from the population is known as sampling error.
  • p-value- probability that the difference between groups is due to chance (Scientists cut off is 0.05 with lower more significance)
  • Effect size quantifies practical significance.
  • Replicate conduct it again using the same methodology in an attempt to see if the results will be the same.
  • Meta-analysis combines the results of many studies on the same topic in order to approximate an average effect (Peer review is where experts edit prior to publication).
APA Ethical Guidelines
  • The IRB or Institutional Review Board approves any academic type of research from any institution.
Animal Research
  • The research must have a clear scientific purpose to answer a specific research question, animals must be suited animals best suited to the research. The law requires humane care in the animal research facility along with a design that least amount of suffering is feasible.
Human Research
  • The standards that a researcher must meet are to not have coercion , obtain informed consent (minors required ascent), uphold confidentiality and protect those from risk. If research involves deception, it is important to conduct a thorough debriefing by the end of test.

UNIT 1 Biological Bases of Behavior

This unit summarizes the structure and function of different parts of the brain (including neural anatomy and processes). The unit includes a brief overview of how the biological systems of genetics and the endocrine system influence thinking and behavior. The unit discusses the application of biological psychology research to the topics of state of consciousness and sensation. You will find the content from this unit in the textbook you use in your AP Psychology class in the biological psychology, states of consciousness, and sensation chapters.

4 Biological Bases of Behavior

Learning Objectives

In this chapter, you will learn about:
→ Genetics
→ Neuroanatomy
→ Nervous system
→ Endocrine system

Key Terms
  • Genetic predisposition
  • Neurons
  • Multiple sclerosis
  • Neural transmission
  • Resting potential
  • Threshold
  • Action potential
  • All-or-none principle
  • Depolarization
  • Resting potential
  • Excitatory
  • Inhibitory
  • Dopamine
  • Serotonin
  • Norepinephrine
  • Glutamate
  • GABA
  • Endorphins
  • Substance P
  • Acetylcholine
  • Alzheimerfs disease
  • Myasthenia gravis
  • Sensory neurons
  • Interneurons
  • Motor neurons
  • Central nervous system
  • Peripheral nervous system
  • Reflex arcs
  • Somatic nervous system
  • Autonomic nervous system
  • Sympathetic nervous system
  • Parasympathetic nervous system
  • Endocrine system
  • Hormones
  • Adrenaline
  • Leptin
  • Ghrelin
  • Melatonin
  • Oxytocin
  • Lesioning
  • Electroencephalogram (EEG)
  • Functional MRI (fMRI)
  • Medulla
  • Cerebellum
  • Reticular formation
  • Thalamus
  • Hypothalamus
  • Amygdala
  • Hippocampus
  • Brain stem
  • Cerebral cortex
  • Limbic system
  • Contralateral hemispheric organization
  • Hemispheric specialization
  • Split-brain patients
  • Corpus callosum
  • Lobes
  • Association area
  • Frontal lobes
  • Prefrontal cortex
  • Central executive
  • Brocafs area
  • Aphasia
  • Wernickefs area
  • Motor cortex
  • Parietal lobes
  • Somatosensory cortex
  • Phantom limb syndrome
  • Occipital lobes
  • Temporal lobes
  • Linguistic processing
Overview
  • The influence of biology (sometimes called the neuroscience or biopsychological perspective) is growing. An understanding of the biological principles relevant to psychology is needed not only for the AP exam but also for any understanding of current psychological thinking.
Genetics
  • Most traits result from the combined effects of nature and nurture.
  • The term genetic predisposition refers to the increased chance of developing a specific trait or condition due to our genetic code.
Basic Genetic Concepts
  • Every human cell contains 4646 chromosomes in 2323 pairs.
  • Chromosomes made up of genetic material called DNA- segments of DNA are called genes
  • Genes can be dominant or recessive. If we inherit two recessive genes for a particular trait, that trait is expressed.
Twins
  • Identical twins create good understanding of genetics effect on human traits.
  • In one famous study, Thomas Bouchard found over 100 identical twins who were given up for adoption and raised in different families
  • IQs of twins raised apart are still highly correlated, demonstrating the strong genetic component. However, twins raised togehter had more similiar IQs. Showing the enviroment does hvae an effect.
Chromosomal Abnormalities
  • Sex is determined by our 23rd23^{rd} pair of chromosomes, females are XX while males are XY. Chromosomes sometime may combine (for fail) in an unusual way which can cause
  • Turner's syndrome- cause short structure, webbed necks, differences in sexual development with a single X chromosome in spot usually occupied by 23rd pair
  • Kline felter syndrome a XXY chromosome results in minimal sexual movement. And Extreme introversion.
  • Down Syndrome- Intellectual disability (rounded face, toes far apart, shorter fingers) when babies have an extra chromosome on the 21st pair.
Neuroanatomy
  • Neuroanatomy refers to the study of parts and function of neurons.
  • Neurons are individual nerve cells and create entire nervous system
  • Important structure in neuron
    • Dendrites- rootlike parts of the cell that stretch out from the cell body and grow to make synaptic connections with other neurons
    • Cell body (also called the soma)- contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life.
    • Axon- wirelike structure ending in the terminal buttons that extends from the cell body (Myelin sheath speeds up this process and when deteoration occurance of neural transmission causes multiple sclerosis)
    • Terminal buttons (also called end buttons, terminal branches of axons, and synaptic knobs)- branched end of the axon that contain neurotransmitters, acting as neurons connection
    • Neurotransmitters- chemicals contained in terminal buttons that enable neurons to communicate with receptor sites like key and lock
    • Synapse- space between the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neuron
How a Neuron “Fires”
  • Follows this process within itself but also requires the synaps (or space between neurons) inorder to communicate
  • Message begins with neuron A then transfers to neuron B.
  • Neuron B in a resting potential (-70 mV) with overall slightly negative charge because mostly negative ions are within the cell and mostly positive ions are surrounding it.
  • When neurotransmitters from neuron A is released to dentrites in receptor site of Neuron B then the cell membrane of neuron B becomes permeable and Neuron B now has +40 mV