Respiratory shi

🫁 Cellular Respiration

💨 Aerobic vs. Anaerobic

• Aerobic: With oxygen.

• Anaerobic: Without oxygen.

⚡ Cellular Respiration Definition

🔋 ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

• Composed of a sugar ribose, nitrogenous base adenine, and a chain of three phosphate groups bonded to it.

• Energy released from cellular respiration.

🔥 Heat

• As heat is constantly lost by the body, a continuous supply of heat is necessary in order to maintain body temperature.

• It is also released from cellular respiration.

📝 ATP Formation

• ATP is formed when an inorganic phosphate group is joined to a molecule adenosine diphosphate (ADP).

Stages of Cellular Respiration

1. Glycolysis

2. Krebs Cycle

3. Electron Transport System

🍬 Glycolysis

• Breaking glucose into two molecules of a compound called pyruvate.

🍺 Fermentation (Anaerobic Respiration)

• If there is no oxygen, the pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid by fermentation

🍋 Citric Acid or Krebs Cycle Process

1. Pyruvate is converted to acetyl coenzyme A (acetly CoA)

2. The two molecules of acetyl CoA then enters the citric acid cycle (or Krebs Cycle)

3. The Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) produces –2 ATP molecules from the 2 molecules of acetyl CoA

➡ Electron Transport System

• Electrons are passed between molecules, finally resulting in oxygen molecules forming water

🩸 Blood and Circulation

🩸 Blood

🛤 Vessels

❤ Heart

🩸 Blood

Functions of the Blood

• Transport of oxygen and nutrients to all body cells

• Removal of CO2 and other wastes from cells

• Transport of hormones (chemical messengers)

• Maintaining pH, water content, ion concentration

• Distributing heat and maintaining body temperature

• Protection (immune response)

• Clotting when vessels are damaged to prevent blood loss

Blood Composition

• PLASMA - 55%

• CELLS - 45%

Plasma

• Plasma is a clear, pale yellow liquid which comprises 55% of the whole blood.

🩸 Platelets (Thrombocytes)

• Fragments of cells made in the red bone marrow (no nucleus)

• Release chemicals to contract the blood vessel and reduce blood loss and stick to the fibrous network that forms during the blood clotting process

🩸 White blood cells (Leukocytes)

• Will fight infections as part of immune response

• Made in the bone marrow and lymph tissue

• Granulocytes have a granular cytoplasm with a lobed nucleus

• Agranulocytes have a spherical nucleus and agranular cytoplasm

🩸 Red blood cells (Erythrocytes)

• Function to carry oxygen - carried on molecule called haemoglobin which is within each red blood cell

• Suited to their function of oxygen transport because:

  • contain haemoglobin which is able to combine with oxygen

  • do not have a nucleus to allow for more room for haemoglobin molecules and increases their flexibility

  • Are biconcave disks to provide more surface area for oxygen exchange across the surface.

💨 Transport of oxygen

• Oxygen is not very soluble in water so only about 3% is carried in solution. The other 97% is carried in combination with haemoglobin molecules

🩸 Oxyhaemoglobin

🩸 When does oxyhaemoglobin break down

• Oxyhaemoglobin breaks down when oxygen concentrations are low such is in tissue fluid around cells

• Oxygen diffuses into the tissue fluid and then into cells

💨 Transport of Carbon Dioxide

• 7 to 8% is dissolved in the plasma

• 22% combines with the globin part of the haemoglobin to form carbaminohaemoglobin

• 70% carried in the plasma as bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)

🩸 Clotting of blood coagulation

• Platelet Plug

  • smooth muscles cause vessels to constrict

  • platelet becomes sticky when exposed to collagen and Platelets stick to the rough surface of the damaged blood vessel

  • Sticking platelets attract other platelets to form a plug

• The Thrombin System

  1. blood platelets and the injured cells release thromboplastin.

  2. thromboplastin interacts with calcium ion and prothrombin to form thrombin

  3. thrombin converts fibrinogen to long stretchy fibres to fibrins

  4. the fibrin fibres form a mesh at the site of the wound that traps platelets and blood cells

  5. within a few minutes the clot contracts, pulling edges of the broken vessel together

🩸 Serum

• The clear yellow fluid that oozes out of the clot - this is plasma minus the fibrinogen.

🚫 Thrombus

• If a thrombus breaks loose it can lodge in a vital blood vessel in the heart or brain causing a heart attack or stroke

血管 Blood Vessels

Types of Blood Vessels

• arteries

• veins

• capillaries

Arteries

• Structure

  • Have thick, elastic walls containing smooth muscle

  • Ability to withstand high pressure

  • Will expand under the surge of blood

  • Can constrict/dilate to change the diameter

  • Small lumen (opening)

• Function

  • Take blood away from the heart to arterioles and finally capillaries in either the lungs or body tissue

  • Blood is transported under high pressure

  • Do not have valves

Veins

• Structure

  • Veins have thinner walls with thinner layers of smooth muscle and elastic fibers

  • They carry blood under lower pressure

  • Valves have flaps that prevent the back flow of blood

• Function

  • They take blood from venules to veins and return it to the heart

  • They have valves to prevent the back flow of blood

  • These veins have to fight against gravity in lower limbs

Capillaries

• Structure

  • Only one cell thick

  • No valves

• Function

  • They take blood to all cells

  • They enable the exchange of substances between blood and surrounding tissues

Pressure

• Pressure is higher at the arterial end of the capillary than the venous end.

• This pressure ensures materials move into the tissue fluid at the arterial end and out of the tissue fluid at the venous end

Arterioles

• Smallest arteries

Venules

• Small veins

🔄 Pulmonary Circulation

• The right ventricle is the pump for the pulmonary circulation

🔄 Systemic Circulation

• the left ventricle is the pump for the systemic circulation

🔄 Double Circulation

• Humans circulation

Another definiton of cellular respiration

• An exothermic reaction which transfers energy from glucose and continuously occurs in living cells.

Glycolysis

• Occurs in the cytoplasm

Krebs cycle

• Occurs in the inner membrane of mitochondria

Periardium

• Holds the heart in place, but also allows the heart to move as it beats.

Atria

• receive blood

Ventricles

• receive blood

Right side of the heart

• Right side collects blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs.

• The right atrium receives blood from the body and passes it to the right ventricle.

• The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs.

Left side of the heart

• The left side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the rest of the body.

• The left atrium receives blood from the lungs and passes it to the left ventricle.

• The left ventricle pumps blood to the body.

Valves location

• Between the atria and the ventricles are the atrioventricular valves (tricuspid and bicuspid)

Valves structure

• valves are held in position by strong tendons, the chordae tendineae and attached by papillary muscles

• semilunar valves prevent the backward flow of blood from the arteries into the ventricles

Blood flow change

• by changing the output of blood from the heart by changing the diameter of the blood vessels supplying the tissues

Systole

• The pumping phase of the cycle, when the heart muscle contracts.

Diastole

• The filling phase, as the heart muscle relaxes.

Atrial systole

• contraction of the atria

Ventricular systole

• ventricles contract

Cardiac output formula

Cardiac output (mL/minute)=stroke volume (mL)×heart rate (beats/minute)Cardiac output (mL/minute)=stroke volume (mL)×heart rate (beats/minute)

Cellular respiration formula (aerobic)

C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+ATPC6​H12​O6​+6O2​→6CO2​+6H2​O+ATP