American government finals

U.S. GOVERNMENT STRUCTURE & TYPES

Federalism
Power is divided between national and state governments.

  • Dual Federalism ("Layer Cake"): Clear separation of powers.

  • Cooperative Federalism ("Marble Cake"): Overlapping functions and shared responsibilities.

  • Local governments are not sovereign; they are creations of the state governments.

Types of Government Power

  • Unitary: Centralized national power (e.g., United Kingdom).

  • Confederation: States hold more power than the central authority (e.g., Articles of Confederation).

  • Federal: Balanced power between national and state governments (e.g., U.S. Constitution).

Authority vs. Power

  • Authority: Legal right to make decisions (e.g., president’s veto power).

  • Power: Practical ability to influence or enforce decisions.

THE U.S. CONSTITUTION

Constitutional Foundations

  • Ratified in 1788.

  • Influenced by Enlightenment thinkers like Locke and Montesquieu.

  • Created a republic with separation of powers and checks and balances.

Key Clauses

  • Supremacy Clause: Federal laws override state laws.

  • Necessary & Proper Clause: Allows Congress to legislate beyond enumerated powers.

  • Commerce Clause: Federal control over interstate trade.

  • Full Faith & Credit Clause: States must recognize each other’s legal decisions.

  • Privileges & Immunities Clause: States must not discriminate against non-residents.

Amendment Process

  • Proposal: 2/3 vote in both chambers of Congress or 2/3 of states.

  • Ratification: 3/4 of state legislatures or conventions.

  • Only the 21st Amendment used the convention route.

Declaration of Independence

  • Signed on July 4, 1776.

  • Asserted the colonies’ independence from Britain.

Bicameralism

  • Legislative structure with two chambers: House of Representatives and Senate.

Three Branches of Government

  • Legislative: Makes laws (Congress).

  • Executive: Enforces laws (President).

  • Judicial: Interprets laws (Supreme Court).

Shay’s Rebellion & Constitutional Reform

  • 1786–1787 uprising showed the weakness of the Articles of Confederation.

  • Led to the Constitutional Convention and creation of the Electoral College.

Articles of Confederation

  • First U.S. constitution (1781–1789).

  • Created a weak national government with strong state independence.

Electoral College

  • 538 total electors: 435 (House) + 100 (Senate) + 3 (D.C.).

  • Number of electors per state = number of House + Senate seats.

  • 270 electoral votes required to win the presidency.

Income Tax Bills

  • State legislatures pass state income tax laws.

  • Federal government is not involved in these state-level decisions.

Federalists vs. Antifederalists

  • Federalists: Supported a strong central government.

  • Antifederalists: Advocated for strong state powers and a Bill of Rights.

Federalist Papers

  • 85 essays written by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay promoting ratification of the Constitution.

State vs. Federal Government

  • State: Education, public safety, elections, infrastructure.

  • Federal: National defense, currency, foreign affairs, interstate commerce.

BILL OF RIGHTS & CIVIL LIBERTIES

First 10 Amendments

  1. Freedom of speech, religion, press, assembly, petition

  2. Right to bear arms

  3. No quartering of soldiers

  4. No unreasonable searches/seizures

  5. Due process, double jeopardy, self-incrimination

  6. Right to a fair and speedy trial

  7. Right to trial by jury in civil cases

  8. No cruel or unusual punishment

  9. Rights retained by the people

  10. Powers not given to federal gov are reserved for states

Incorporation Doctrine

  • Applies Bill of Rights to the states via the 14th Amendment's Due Process Clause.

Civil Rights vs. Civil Liberties

  • Civil Rights: Protections from discrimination (e.g., voting rights).

  • Civil Liberties: Freedoms from government interference (e.g., speech, religion).

Jim Crow Laws

  • Enforced racial segregation in the South after Reconstruction until the Civil Rights Movement.

CIVIL RIGHTS

13th Amendment (1865): Abolished slavery.
14th Amendment (1868): Equal protection and due process under the law.
15th Amendment (1870): Voting rights cannot be denied by race.

Civil Rights Act of 1964: Outlawed segregation and discrimination in public places and employment.
Voting Rights Act of 1965: Eliminated literacy tests and enforced fair voting practices.

INSTITUTIONS OF GOVERNMENT

Congress

  • Bicameral: House (based on population) + Senate (equal representation per state).

  • Powers: Taxation, spending, war declarations, regulating interstate commerce.

  • Lawmaking Process: Proposal → Committee → Debate → Vote → President.

Presidency

  • Powers: Veto, military command, executive orders, foreign policy.

  • Can act unilaterally, but checked by judicial review and Congress.

Judiciary

  • Article III courts include Supreme Court, Appellate, and District Courts.

  • Judicial Review: Power to strike down laws (established in Marbury v. Madison).

  • Federal courts handle constitutional and federal law cases.

Bureaucracy

  • Implements federal policy (e.g., IRS, EPA, FDA).

  • Controlled by both Congress (funding, oversight) and the President (appointments).

PUBLIC INPUT & POLITICAL BEHAVIOR

Public Opinion

  • Measured by surveys; influenced by education, media, family.

  • Can shape public policy and election outcomes.

Political Participation

  • Includes voting, protesting, advocacy.

  • Voter turnout varies by demographics and electoral rules.

Political Parties

  • Organize elections, create platforms, and unify voters.

  • Not mentioned in the Constitution but play a central role.

Interest Groups

  • Advocate for specific issues (e.g., NRA, ACLU).

  • Use lobbying, litigation, and campaign contributions.

Media

  • Informs the public and acts as a watchdog.

  • Influences agenda setting and public perception of events and politicians.

CORE POLITICAL CONCEPTS

Separation of Powers

  • Division of government responsibilities across three branches.

Checks and Balances

  • Each branch can check the power of the others (e.g., veto, judicial review).

Collective Action Problems

  • Issues when individuals fail to act collectively (free riders, prisoner's dilemma, tragedy of the commons).

Principal-Agent Problems

  • Voters (principals) elect officials (agents) who may act in their own interest rather than the public's.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT

Common Sense (1776)

  • Written by Thomas Paine; encouraged colonies to break away from Britain.

Boston Tea Party (1773)

  • Protest against British taxes; sparked increased tensions with Britain.

3 Grievances Against the British (from Declaration of Independence)

  1. Imposing taxes without consent

  2. Dissolving legislative bodies

  3. Denying trial by jury

New Deal (1930s)

  • FDR's programs to combat the Great Depression (e.g., Social Security, public works).

Watergate Scandal (1972–1974)

  • Nixon’s campaign broke into DNC offices and planted listening devices; led to Nixon’s resignation.

Vietnam War (1955–1975)

  • U.S. involvement in Southeast Asia to stop the spread of communism; led to widespread domestic protests.

All 14th Amendment Clauses

  1. Citizenship Clause: Anyone born/naturalized in U.S. is a citizen.

  2. Privileges or Immunities Clause: States can't restrict the rights of U.S. citizens.

  3. Due Process Clause: No state shall deprive life, liberty, property without due process.

  4. Equal Protection Clause: Requires equal protection under the law for all people.