❤️❤️ CH 19 American Empire Notes
American Empire
Introduction
Empires can take many forms, not just military conquest or colonization.
The question is whether the United States became an empire of its own after winning independence from the British Empire.
American imperialism involves understanding direct interventions (e.g., Cuba, Philippines) and the broader influence of American economic, political, and cultural power.
The rise of imperialism and immigration led to questions about American identity and obligations to foreign powers and peoples.
Patterns of American Interventions
American interventions in Mexico, China, and the Middle East aimed to protect American economic interests abroad.
In 1899, Secretary of State John Hay articulated the Open Door Policy, advocating equal access to Chinese markets for all Western powers.
The U.S. intervened militarily in 1900 during the Boxer Rebellion in China to prevent the closing of trade.
President McKinley sent the U.S. Army without consulting Congress, setting a precedent for executive power in deploying troops.
The United States acquired Pacific territories through the Guano Islands Act of 1856.
Guano was a popular fertilizer integral to industrial farming.
These territories were unincorporated and did not have a path to statehood, setting a precedent for future acquisitions.
Christian missionaries followed traders, with the first arriving in Hawaii in 1820 and China in 1830.
Missionaries in Hawaii obtained land and started sugar plantations, forming an oligarchy known as the "Big Five."
American capitalists invested heavily in Mexico during the rule of Porfirio Diaz.
The Mexican Revolution in 1910 led to American businessmen seeking governmental help.
President Woodrow Wilson pressured Mexico after Victoriano Huerta executed Francisco Madero in 1913.
In April 1914, Wilson invaded Veracruz after American sailors were arrested.
The U.S. supported Venustiano Carranza, leading Pancho Villa to attack American interests in 1916.
General John J. “Blackjack” Pershing led a punitive expedition but failed to capture Villa.
These actions reflected a long-standing policy of intervention in Latin America based on potential impacts on U.S. interests.
In 1867, Mark Twain wrote "The Innocents Abroad" where he commented on the American's sense of superiority when interacting with people from the Middle East.
American involvement in the Middle East primarily took the form of education, science, and humanitarian aid through missionary work.
American missionaries established hospitals, schools, and universities like Robert College in Turkey and the American University of Beirut.
1898
The Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars (1898–1902) marked a turning point in American interventions.
These conflicts forced Americans to confront the ideological elements of imperialism.
In 1898, attention turned to Cuba, where Cubans had been trying to gain independence from Spain.
Spanish General Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau conducted a policy of reconcentration, forcing Cubans into military camps.
Newspaper publishers sensationalized Spanish atrocities, fueling calls for intervention.
After the Maine exploded in Havana harbor on February 15, 1898, the U.S. declared war on Spain on April 25.
Commodore George Dewey engaged the Spanish fleet outside Manila on May 1, destroying it.
American troops took Cuba’s San Juan Heights in July, with Theodore Roosevelt and his Rough Riders gaining fame.
The Treaty of Paris was signed in December, with the U.S. acquiring Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.
Secretary of State John Hay called it a “splendid little war.”
Senator Albert J. Beveridge advocated for American imperialism, viewing it as a “mission to perform."
Question of Empire
The question of whether the U.S. should become an empire was debated after the Spanish-American War and the annexation of Hawaii in July 1898.
The U.S. annexed Hawaii at the request of American businessmen who had overthrown the Hawaiian monarchy.
Opponents worried that imperial ambitions did not align with the nation’s founding ideals.
The Philippines became a focal point of these discussions after the U.S. gained possession after the war.
Emilio Aguinaldo led Philippine forces against the Spanish and later against the Americans.
In April 1899, Congress ratified the 1898 Treaty of Paris, giving the U.S. the Philippine Islands for .
From 1899 to 1902, the U.S. waged a conflict against Filipino insurrectionists.
The Philippine-American War was a brutal conflict with guerrilla-style warfare.
The federal government sent two Philippine Commissions to assess the situation and recommend a civilian colonial government.
William H. Taft became the first governor-general (1901–1903).
The American Anti-Imperialist League, founded in 1899, protested American imperial actions.
Theodore Roosevelt and American Imperialism
Under President Theodore Roosevelt, the U.S. pursued global power through military might, territorial expansion, and economic influence.
Roosevelt emphasized developing the American navy and Latin America as a key strategic area.
Roosevelt advocated for the annexation of Hawaii because it was within the American sphere of influence, it would deny Japanese expansion, it had great port for battleships at Pearl Harbor, and it would act as a fueling station on the way to pivotal markets in Asia.
Alfred Thayer Mahan’s naval theories influenced Roosevelt, advocating for battleships and a “blue water” navy.
The mission of the Great White Fleet (1907-1909) demonstrated America’s new power.
The United States used military intervention and dollar diplomacy to assert dominance over the Western Hemisphere.
Roosevelt pronounced the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine in 1904, asserting U.S. police power in the Caribbean.
The United States had the right to preemptive action through intervention in any Latin American nation in order to correct administrative and fiscal deficiencies.
Dollar diplomacy involved providing loans to Latin American nations in exchange for control over their finances.
Rising debts to European and American bankers destabilized much of Latin America.
Creditors could not force settlements of loans until they successfully lobbied their own governments to get involved and forcibly collect debts.
The Roosevelt administration did not want to deny the Europeans’ rightful demands of repayment of debt, but it also did not want to encourage European policies of conquest in the hemisphere as part of that debt collection.
The Roosevelt Corollary asserted that the U.S. wished to promote stable, prosperous states in Latin America.
Roosevelt believed in using military power to protect national interests and spheres of influence when necessary.
Women and Imperialism
Debates over American imperialism included notions of humanitarianism, morality, religion, and ideas of “civilization,” with significant participation by American women.
Women worked as missionaries, teachers, and medical professionals.
The rhetoric of civilization was a gendered concept, with white women seen as symbols of American civilization.
Civilization was also an economic concept, marked by the consumption of industrially produced commodities.
Some women opposed U.S. imperialism, joining organizations like the Anti-Imperialist League.
Black female activists viewed imperialism as a form of racial antagonism.
Immigration
Imperialism and immigration were linked, with foreign policy concerns becoming domesticated.
Industrialization, imperialism, and immigration were interconnected.
Nativists opposed mass immigration for various reasons, including fears about job competition and radical ideas.
Franklin Benjamin Sanborn advocated for federal immigration legislation to stop “indiscriminate and unregulated immigration."
From the 1870s to the 1920s, the federal government passed laws limiting immigration.
The Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882 suspended the immigration of Chinese laborers.
In August 1882, Congress passed the Immigration Act, denying admission to people who were not able to support themselves and those, such as paupers, people with mental illnesses, or convicted criminals, who might otherwise threaten the security of the nation.
Immigration critics responded to the shifting demographics of American immigration, with more immigrants coming from southern and eastern Europe and Asia.
The Gentlemen’s Agreement in 1907 practically suspended the immigration of Japanese laborers.
The U.S. Immigration Commission highlighted the impossibility of incorporating these new immigrants into American society.
Catholics in America faced challenges related to Protestant anti-Catholicism and assimilation.
Some clergy advocated rapid assimilation, while others cautioned against it.
Conclusion
American imperialism flared most brightly at the turn of the century.
The U.S. exercised control over nations and peoples through cultural, economic, religious, and military power.
Debates over immigration and imperialism drew attention to the interplay of international and domestic policy.
Introduction
Empires can take many forms, not just military conquest.
The U.S.'s status as an empire post-independence is debated.
American imperialism includes direct interventions (e.g., Cuba, Philippines) and cultural influence.
Immigration and imperialism raise questions about American identity and obligations.
Patterns of American Interventions
U.S. interventions in Mexico, China, and the Middle East aimed at protecting economic interests.
The Open Door Policy (1899) advocated equal access to Chinese markets.
Military intervention during the Boxer Rebellion (1900) to keep trade routes open.
McKinley's actions set precedents for presidential power in military deployment.
Pacific territory acquisitions through the Guano Islands Act of 1856 laid groundwork for future expansions.
Missionaries followed trade, establishing influence in Hawaii and China.
Investment in Mexico during Diaz's rule led to U.S. involvement in the revolution and subsequent military actions against Huerta's regime.
American military pressures influenced Mexican politics, resulting in conflicts with figures like Pancho Villa.
Initial American engagements in the Middle East were primarily educational and humanitarian through missionaries.
1898
The Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars (1898–1902) marked a critical shift in U.S. interventions.
The U.S. declared war on Spain following Cuban struggles for independence and sensationalist press coverage after the Maine explosion.
Significant victories included the destruction of the Spanish fleet at Manila and the capture of San Juan Heights.
Treaty of Paris (1898) resulted in U.S. acquisitions of Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.
Question of Empire
Debates about U.S. imperialism arose post-Spanish-American War and Hawaii’s annexation.
The Philippines stirred ideological conflict after acquisition, with Aguinaldo leading resistance.
U.S. ratified the Treaty of Paris for , leading to brutal conflict (1899-1902) against Filipino fighters.
The Anti-Imperialist League emerged as a response to these expansions.
Theodore Roosevelt and American Imperialism
Roosevelt expanded U.S. global influence through military and economic strategies.
Advocated annexation of Hawaii for strategic and economic reasons.
The Great White Fleet (1907-1909) symbolized emerging U.S. naval power.
Roosevelt Corollary (1904) asserted U.S. right to intervene in Latin America for stability.
Women and Imperialism
American women participated in imperial debates through roles in missionary work and education.
Some women opposed imperialism, while others supported it through organizations like the Anti-Imperialist League.
Immigration
Immigration and imperialism interlinked, with policies reflecting nativist sentiments.
Federal laws limited immigration from the 1870s to the 1920s, including the Chinese Exclusion Act.
Shifting demographics caused concern among nativists about assimilation and competition for jobs.
Conclusion
American imperialism peaked around the turn of the century, controlling nations through various means, raising international and domestic policy debates