8.21 Language Use in Non-Human Animals

The exploration of language use extends beyond primates, focusing on other animal species.
Mention of an example animal, Alice, illustrating adaptability in discussing animal communication.

Dolphins exhibit complex communication through learned behaviors with trainers during shows.
Trainers use a series of gestures, demonstrating that dolphins can respond to specific commands.
- Example command: "Bring the ball on the left to the hoop on the right."
Dolphins distinguish commands based on word order, understanding that syntax contributes to the meaning of requests.
Key point: The ability to differentiate commands indicates a sophisticated grasp of syntactical rules, even in an artificial language setup.

Border collie named Chaser recognized as the smartest recorded dog with a vocabulary of approximately 1,000 words.
Chaser demonstrates the capacity to differentiate between objects and can fetch specific toys when named:
- Example command: "Go grab Mr. Pig."
This showcases Chaser's understanding of nouns and verbs, performing accurately based on the verbal command issued.

African grey parrots, such as Alex, are significant models in language studies due to their capacity to mimic human speech.
Alex had a vocabulary of around 150 words and could respond to complex queries, demonstrating understanding beyond simple mimicry.
- Example question: "How many red cubes are there?"
- Alex must combine knowledge of colors, shapes, and quantities to provide an accurate answer.
Other parrots, like Alice, can also learn a few simple verbal commands, indicating varying levels of communication skills within the species.

Honey bees communicate through a complex behavior known as the “waggle dance.”
- Function of the dance: To convey information about the direction and distance of food sources.
The dance involves variations in intensity and direction,
- Intensity of waggle conveys distance; more vigorous waggling indicates greater distance.
- Orientation relative to the sun provides direction information, showing cognitive mapping capabilities.
This form of communication displays a level of sophistication correlating with concepts of displacement (talking about distant events or locations).

Various monkey species exhibit what are termed referential alarm calls.
- Specific calls correspond to particular predators (e.g., eagle, leopard, snake).
- Behavior changes according to the species of threat indicated by the alarm call:
- Eagle alarm: Monkeys look up and move inward on the tree.
- Leopard alarm: Monkeys look outward or climb higher.
- Snake alarm: Monkeys group to mob and harass the snake.
This phenomenon supports the concept of semanticity: the sound itself doesn't inherently indicate the predator it represents, yet its meaning is commonly understood.

Many species, including elephants, songbirds, and whales, require social exposure to develop typical vocalizations.
Importance of social interaction highlights the significance of cultural learning in vocal development.
Whales exhibit cultural transmission of songs, showing complex social influences and trends over time.

Discussion returns to the question of the uniqueness of human language.
The consensus is nuanced: it's partly yes and partly no.
- Noam Chomsky advocates for the view that human language is fundamentally unique, although elements of continuity with animal communication exist.
- Conceptual explanation: Differences in degree rather than kind—both non-human animals and humans use communicative systems but may differ in complexity and abstraction.
Franz de Waal posits commonalities between human language systems and animal communication along a continuum:
- References to semanticity and displacement found in animal communication systems.
- Suggests human language evolved from gestural language, paralleling more sophisticated aspects of chimpanzee communication.

Overall, the approach should not declare animal communication systems as equivalent to human language but recognize that all communication exists along a continuum.
Human language is viewed in the context of natural evolution, not as a separate entity, indicating the interconnectedness of all communication systems in nature.