Access to History for Cambridge International AS Level_ the History of the USA 1820-1941
How was the issue of slavery addressed between 1820 and 1850?
By the mid-nineteenth century, slavery had emerged as the most divisive issue among Americans. Southern states were largely in support of slavery, regarding it as their "peculiar institution," while northern states were predominantly opposed. The challenge of slavery was compounded by the United States' political system and the impacts of the westward expansion, leading politicians to struggle to find compromises to maintain national unity between 1820 and 1850.
The US Political System and the Balance of Sectional Interests
The 1787 Constitution established a federal system where power was distributed between the federal government and individual states. Each state mirrored this structure with its governor, legislative body, and judicial authority. By 1820, out of 23 states, 11 were free and 12 were slave states. The Constitution recognized slavery indirectly; slaves were counted as three-fifths of a person for representation in the House of Representatives, effectively permitting slavery's persistence in political affairs.
American Democracy
Throughout the 1820s, the United States had transformed into a more democratic society compared to the rest of the world, despite restrictions on voting for women and most African Americans. By the 1830s, two leading political parties emerged—the Democrats, advocating for state-level decision-making and opposing government intervention in the economy, and the Whigs, who supported higher tariffs and more active government involvement in social issues.
Key Terms
Peculiar institution: A term used by Southerners to describe slavery.
Federal: A government system where individual states have partial autonomy while combining for national unity.
Platform: The declared principles and intentions of a political party.
Tariff: A duty on imported goods.
Sectional Interests
From independence, the United States faced sectional rivalries, particularly between the North and South. While some historians argue the two sections had many similarities, others assert that differences—especially concerning slavery—instigated the Civil War. Economically, the North increasingly industrialized with mixed farming and free labor, while the South remained agrarian, relying heavily on slave labor for crops like cotton and tobacco.
Economic Differentiation
In 1850, the North produced only 10 percent of the nation’s manufactured goods while housing 35 percent of the population. Economic grievances emerged as the South believed that tariffs favored Northern industrialists, and they relied on Northern credit to finance their economic activities, further entrenching feelings of exploitation.
Value Systems
Southerners also maintained a cultural belief in the superiority of their agrarian values and were preoccupied with personal honor. The emerging abolitionist sentiments in the North were perceived as threats to traditional Southern values and institutions. While some Northerners reacted against slavery, many defended their interests, rejecting radical changes.
The Growth of Sectionalism
Slavery was the most significant factor leading to the emergence of sectionalism. Although slavery existed in all thirteen colonies by 1776, it was most pivotal in the South due to its favorable climate for plantation agriculture. As radical Protestants condemned slavery, Northern states began abolishing it post-independence.
The Cotton Boom
The invention of the cotton gin facilitated a rapid increase in cotton production, leading to a surge in demand for slave labor. By the 1830s, the South produced two million bales annually, driving profits that cemented slavery's economic viability. Even though many historical perspectives have oversimplified the relationship between Northern industry and Southern agriculture, a nuanced understanding reveals complex socioeconomic interdependencies.
Abolitionism
Initially, abolitionists advocated for gradual emancipation with financial compensation for slave owners, promoting ideas of sending freed slaves back to Africa with the establishment of Liberia in 1822. However, their efforts faced numerous obstacles, including a lack of funding and support.
Militant Abolitionism
The early 1830s saw the rise of more radical figures like William Lloyd Garrison, who launched The Liberator, demanding immediate abolition. The formation of societies like the National Anti-Slavery Society reflected a growing momentum, though political support remained limited, especially after Congress enacted the "gag rule" to suppress discussions around abolitionist petitions.
Challenges for Abolitionists
Northerners often resisted abolitionism, fearing the flow of freed slaves into their states. Militant actions such as the 1831 Nat Turner rebellion intensified Southern defenses of slavery, prompting stronger forms of repression against abolitionists. The majority of Southern whites remained resiliently supportive of slavery, characterizing it as a positive good rather than an evil.
Conclusion
By the mid-nineteenth century, significant sectional divisions had become entrenched, rooted in economic interests, cultural values, and the unfinished business of slavery in America. The complexities of this divide would soon lead to the catastrophic exploitation of political and social tensions in the years leading up to the Civil War.