Urban Growth Patterns and Strategic Planning Fundamentals
Introduction to Urban Growth and Planning Forces
The study of urban growth patterns and planning is guided by the sentiment expressed by Theodore Roosevelt: ‐The more you know about the past, the better prepared you are for the future.‐ In the context of MGT 2234 at RMIT University, understanding these patterns is essential for describing the forces driving change in cities, explaining the role of planning principles in community amenity, and interpreting property-specific planning information.
Cities do not change overnight; they are influenced by technological developments that dictate how people move. A central concept in urban planning is Marchetti's Constant, which posits that most people have a daily commute of approximately hour in total. This suggests that people are generally prepared to travel for about to minutes each way between their home and workplace if given the choice. While urban planners do not necessarily aim for this specific duration, they recognize it as a truism that significantly impacts housing markets and buyer behavior. Historically, the evolution of cities has progressed through distinct stages based on transport technology: the Walking city, the Rail city, the Tram city, and finally the Car city.
Cities as Economic Engines
Cities serve as critical economic engines through several key mechanisms. They provide a concentration of resources, bringing together diverse businesses, workers, and resources to create dense networks of interaction and collaboration. This concentration allows for economies of scale, enabling businesses to operate more efficiently, which reduces costs and increases productivity. Furthermore, cities act as innovation and knowledge hubs where ideas are readily shared between individuals and firms, leading to the development of new products, services, and business models. On a broader scale, cities offer global connectivity, serving as critical nodes in international networks to facilitate trade, investment, and cultural exchange.
The Rate of Change and Gentrification
The rate of urban change can be dramatic. For example, in New York in , historical images show streets filled with horse-drawn carriages and only a single car. Just years later, the situation was reversed, with only one horse-drawn carriage visible amidst a street full of cars. Such rapid transitions in technology and transport necessitate adaptive planning to address emerging issues.
One significant ‐unofficial‐ reconfiguration of the urban form is gentrification. As defined by Holland (), gentrification is simply the process by which lower-income neighborhoods are changed when large numbers of higher-income residents move in. From a property investment perspective, this process has various effects. Positive effects might include increased property values and improved local infrastructure, while negative effects often involve the displacement of original residents due to rising costs.
Three Models of Urban Growth
Urban planners utilize theoretical models to understand spatial arrangements and settlement patterns. Three primary models include the Burgess model, the Hoyt model, and the Harris-Ullman model.
The Burgess model, based on Chicago’s growth pattern, views city development as a series of concentric rings. It is an attempt to understand spatial arrangements and how settlements expand outward from a central core.
Hoyt’s sector model suggests that cities do not develop in simple rings but rather in ‐sectors.‐ Activities and locations in this model are highly influenced by transport linkages and residential rent patterns. According to Hoyt, different types of land use radiate outward from the Central Business District (CBD) along major transportation routes.
The Harris-Ullman model, also known as the Multiple Nuclei model, is based on the notion that CBDs are losing their dominant positions. This model assumes an uneven topology, an even distribution of resources and people, and even transport costs. It emphasizes that modern cities have multiple centers or nuclei rather than a single CBD, a trend driven by increased car ownership and improved movement.
The Future of Cities
Future urban environments will be shaped by several significant drivers of change. Planners must consider whether cities will become ‐smarter‐ through technological development, shifts in energy sources and supply, and the mitigation of environmental issues such as air and noise pollution. Social equity remains a core concern, particularly regarding issues like homelessness and sleeping rough. Additionally, transportation trends, such as the potential removal of vehicles from city centers, and changing working patterns, like the permanence of working from home (WFH), will dictate the growth and form of future cities.
Defining Urban Planning and the Victorian System
Urban planning is the practice of balancing the interests of individuals with the common interests of society. Because land is a limited resource, competing interests inevitably emerge, creating a tension between personal rights and public need. The Planning Institute of Australia (PIA ) defines the core interests of planners as the community and the practices relating to the planned use of land, its associated systems, and the environmental, social, and economic impacts of that land use.
Historical examples of the tension between individual rights and public need include the death of the slum clearance program by the Housing Commission of Victoria in the mid-s and the birth of urban activism in Australia. During this time, residents fought against projects like the F2 Freeway and the Eastern Freeway (F19), as seen in the emergency issues of ‐The Melbourne Times‐ in October , where citizens were encouraged to ‐Help Repel the Invaders‐ to protect their neighborhoods from freeway construction.
Strategic and Statutory Planning
Planning is divided into two main areas: Strategic and Statutory.
Strategic Planning involves preparing long-term plans by gathering information and data, engaging stakeholders, devising options, and seeking political acceptance. It operates at various scales, from regional and metropolitan to the neighborhood level. Strategic planning is thematic, linking economic plans, heritage, environment, health, and recreation into a broad vision. An example of this is ‐Plan Melbourne ,‐ which aims for -minute neighborhoods, green and low-emission sustainability, and efficient public transport systems, specifically focusing on western regions.
Statutory Planning is the regulatory regime that gives formal status to policies through the Planning Scheme. It involves procedures for requiring consent (permits) for changes of use, development, and subdivision of land. It also includes appeal or ‐review‐ procedures through VCAT (the Victorian Civil and Administrative Tribunal) when permits are refused or conditions are contested.
Outcomes of Poor Urban Planning
Inadequate urban planning leads to several negative characteristics and outcomes, including urban sprawl, traffic congestion, a lack of affordable housing, and a lack of green spaces. It often results in poor infrastructure and inadequate public transport. Australian cities face a specific structural vulnerability because they are largely car-based, making them highly dependent on one transport mode and vulnerable to fuel price increases. The large land mass of Australia also makes expanding transport networks slow and expensive, with diminishing returns for fringe areas.
The Victorian Planning System: Legal and Structural Framework
The Victorian planning system is governed by the Planning and Environment Act . The objectives of this act include:
(a) Providing for the fair, orderly, economic, and sustainable use and development of land; (b) protecting natural and man-made resources and maintaining ecological processes; (c) securing a pleasant, efficient, and safe environment for all; (d) conserving buildings or places of scientific, aesthetic, or historical interest; (e) protecting public utilities and enabling their orderly provision; (f) facilitating development in accordance with these objectives; and (g) balancing the present and future interests of all Victorians.
A Planning Scheme is a statutory document that regulates land use and development on both public and private land, including areas above and below ground and land covered by water. These schemes are binding on the public, government ministers, and local councils. The components of a planning scheme include the State Planning Policy Framework (fixed state content), the Local Planning Policy Framework (including the Municipal Strategic Statement or MSS), Zones, Overlays, Particular Provisions, General Provisions, Definitions, and Incorporated Documents.
Zones indicate the type of use and development allowed on the land, while Overlays operate in addition to zone requirements, generally concerning environmental, heritage, or built-form issues. Tools like VicPlan allow users to view planning maps, query zones (e.g., C2Z), and generate property reports that detail permitted uses and development potential for specific allotments.
Planning Permits vs. Building Permits
It is critical to distinguish between planning permits and building permits. A Planning permit relates to the USE of the land and must be obtained first if required. A Building permit relates to the CONSTRUCTION aspects of a development and is issued under the Victoria Building Regulations. If a planning permit is required, it must be secured before a building permit can be issued.