Individual Differences

Individual differences refer to the unique characteristics and traits that make each person distinct, including factors such as personality, intelligence, and learning styles.

Nature vs. Nurture Debate

• Nature Debate: Suggests children are born with inborn biases common to all. Influences developmental changes and behaviour.

• Nurture Debate: Focuses on environmental influences on presentation and behaviour. Considers internal models of experience.

Studying Nature vs. Nurture

• Experiments needed to control heredity/environments:

  • Control heredity while varying the environment.

  • Vary heredity while controlling the environment.

• Ethical concerns limit experimental methods; natural situations can provide insights (e.g., Jim twins).

The Interaction of Nature and Nurture

• Genes can be active (expressed) or inactive.

• Environmental events can activate ‘switch on’ genes, indicating a complex interplay between genetics and environment.

Definition of Personality

• Personality: Relatively stable and enduring aspects that distinguish individuals while allowing for comparisons.

Theories of Personality

• Nomothetic Approaches (Consistency in behaviour due to traits, unlikely to change):

  • Type and trait theories (Eysenck, Cattell).

• Idiographic Approaches (Variable behaviour influenced by situational factors, possibility for change):

  • Psychodynamic theories (Freud, Jung, Adler, Erikson).

  • Humanistic theories (Rogers, Maslow).

  • Interactionism (Bowers), Situationism (Mischel).

Humanistic Theories of Personality

• Define personality by conscious experiences and drives.

• Asserts that personality develops naturally unless hindered by external factors.

• Maslow's hierarchy of needs with self-actualization at the top

• Rogers' self-theory: focuses on self-image consistency. Perceptions and beliefs about themselves.

• Trying to align our behaviours with our perception of ourselves. If we din’t, we doubt ourselves. How others see us.

Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory

• Emphasizes individual uniqueness through a phenomenological approach.

• Uses repertory grid technique to help individuals identify personal constructs.

Allport’s Trait Theory (1961)

• Common Traits: Basic adjustment modes for cultural or ethnic groups.

• Individual Traits: Unique personal dispositions shaped by experiences.

Eysenck’s Type Theory (1995)

• Defines three personality dimensions:

  • Introversion-Extroversion (E)

  • Neuroticism (emotional stability) (N)

  • Psychoticism (P)

Eysenck's Hierarchical Model

• Hierarchical levels of behaviour from specific responses to trait and type levels (e.g., introversion).

The Big Five Personality Factors (The 5 factor model)

1. Neuroticism: Emotional stability traits.

2. Extroversion: Sociable traits.

3. Openness to Experience: Creativity and intelligence.

4. Agreeableness: Trustworthiness and kindness.

5. Conscientiousness: Organization and reliability.

• Undesirable traits contrasted with desirable qualities (Gross, 2020).

Definition of Intelligence

• Intelligence involves learning from experience, problem-solving, and adapting to new situations.

Theories of Intelligence

• One General Ability:

  • Charles Spearman: Concept of 'g' (general intelligence).

  • Central to our intelligence behaviour e.g. school work and problem solving.

  • L.L. Thurstone: Identified 7 clusters of primary mental abilities, suggesting a multifaceted view of intelligence.

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory

• Intelligence is a collection of independent intelligence.

• Each intelligence operates as a distinct system, interacting to achieve outcomes.

Gardner's Eight Intelligences

1. Linguistic: Reading and communication skills.

2. Logical-Mathematical: Numerical and scientific reasoning.

3. Spatial: Understanding and imagining spatial relationships.

4. Musical: Composing and appreciating music.

5. Bodily-Kinaesthetic: Physical manipulation skills.

6. Interpersonal: Understanding and interacting with others.

7. Intrapersonal: Self-reflection and understanding.

8. Naturalistic: Recognizing and categorizing natural phenomena.

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

1. Analytical Intelligence: Problem-solving skills, measurable by tests.

2. Creative Intelligence: Adaptability and novelty generation.

3. Practical Intelligence: Application in everyday tasks. Tested this for children by asking them to write captions for pictures and for adults to move furniture.

Emotional Intelligence

• Defined as the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.

• Components include:

  • Perceiving: Recognizing emotions in others.

  • Understanding: Predicting emotion changes.

  • Managing: Expressing emotions appropriately.

  • Using: Facilitating adaptive thinking.

Assessing Intelligence

• A metaphorical exam scenario highlighting the idea of uniform testing fairness.

• Not everyone can showcase their intelligence in a test environment.

Understanding Abnormalities

• Definition: Abnormality refers to behaviours that deviate from typical norms.

• Need to differentiate between desirable and undesirable abnormal behaviours.

Types of Norms

• Developmental norms- milestones. Medical form to track development/ progress. Help to identify development.

• Societal norms- normal in society and cultures

• Contextual norms- depending in the context that it is in.

How these apply to Speech and Language Therapy?

• Consider socio-cultural factors in their language and behaviour- suitable to their upbringing.

• Milestones are useful as a guide to know when to provide early intervention.

• Different speech sound productions in different cultures and languages.

• Neurodiversity and LD

• Bilingualism.

Assessments- can use formal assessments in informal ways- appropriate for neuro-diversity and LD.

Classification of Abnormality

• DSM-5 (Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders): Criteria for clinically significant behavioural patterns linked to distress. Diagnostic criteria.

• ICD-11 (International classification of diseases): Reflects significant disturbances in cognition or behaviour, impairing functioning. Guidelines are more descriptive. Widely used in medical practice.

Problems with Classification of abnormailty

• Key Study: Rosenhan's 'On Being Sane in Insane Places'.

• Eight pseudo-patients misdiagnosed with schizophrenia after feigning auditory hallucinations.

• Showed challenges in distinguishing between normal and abnormal behaviours in clinical settings.

Influences on Psychological Disorders

• Social-Cultural Influences: Roles, expectations, norms.

• Psychological Influences: Stress, trauma, learned helplessness.

• Biological Influences: Genetics, brain structure.

Psychopathology: Anxiety Disorders

• Anxiety defined as adaptive but becomes abnormal when disproportionate.

• Includes: Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Panic Disorder, and Phobias.

Psychopathology: Depressive Disorders

• Monoamine Hypothesis: Links depression to neurotransmitter depletion (Medical)

• Attributional Theory: Focuses on negative thought patterns contributing to depression. (Cognitive)

• DSM-5 criteria for diagnosing depressive disorders.

Attributional Theory of Depression

• DAS- Depressed attributional style

• Locus- cause is internal or external

• Stability- cause is stable or unstable

• Global or specific- cause relates to the ‘whole’ person or some particular feature or characteristic.

Doesn’t necessarily reflect a resilient person.

Psychopathology: Bipolar Disorders

• Characterized by mood extremes: depression and mania.

• Potential for creativity during milder mania, but higher dysfunction overall.

Psychopathology: Schizophrenia (split- mind. Not split personality)

• Psychotic disorder with symptoms of irrationality and distorted perceptions.

• Symptoms categorized as positive (presence of abnormal behaviour) or negative (absence of normal behaviour).

Symptoms of Schizophrenia

• Includes disturbed perceptions, disorganized speech, inappropriate emotions, etc.

• Underlying factors include dopamine dysregulation and genetic components.

• Symptoms are positive (behaving inappropriately)- Not seeing something that is normally there.

• Symptoms are negative (appropriate behaviours are absent)- Taking something that isn’t normally there.