Observational Learning

Definition (#f7aeae)

Important (#edcae9)

Extra (#fffe9d)


Learning Outcomes:

  • Types of observational learning.

  • Imitation.

  • Variables affecting observational learning.

  • Theories of observational learning.


Observational Learning:

History:

  1. 1898: E.L Thorndike used chicks, cats and dogs to investigate observational learning and got negative results.

  2. Thorndike repeated the study in 1901 with monkeys and got similar results.

  3. J.B Watson did similar series of experiments and also got negative results.

  4. 1930: Carl Warden conducted controlled experiments and demonstrated that monkeys can learn by observing.

  5. 1960: After Bandura’s studies, the area of observational learning took off.


Observational Learning:

  • Past definition: Observational learning is defined as learning from the experience of the model.

  • Present definition: Observational learning is defined as learning by observing events and their consequences.

  • 2 Types:

    1. Social Observational Learning

    2. Asocial Observational Learning.


Social Observational Learning:

  • O [MB → S+/-]

  • Observer (O) views models behavior (MB) and it’s positive or negative consequences (S+/-).


  • Vicarious Reinforcement: If model is reinforced for a behavior.

    Ex: A student takes their time writing in nice handwriting because they observed other students being praised for their neat writing.


  • Vicarious Punishment: If model is punished of a behavior.

    Ex: A student might not interrupt the teacher during class after seeing another student being reprimanded for it.


Study: (Rosekrans and Hartup. 1967)

  • Nursery children watched adult models playing with toys.

  • Models would beat the doll on the head, poke it with a fork & say “punch him”.

  • 2 Conditions:

    1. Condition 1: Aggressive behavior was praised.

    2. Condition 2: Aggressive behavior was criticized.

  • Results:

    1. Children who observed aggressive play being reinforced, later played aggressively.

    2. Children who observed aggressive play being punished; later played peacefully.


Asocial Observational Learning:

  • O [E → S+/-]

  • Observer (O) views an event (E) and it’s positive and/or negative consequences (S+/-).

  • Ghost condition: Observing an event happening without a model.

  • The effectiveness of Asocial Observational Learning is good as Social Observational Learning.


Imitation:

  • Behaving in a way that resembles the model.

  • Over imitation: Tendency to imitate irrelevant behavior.


Variables Affecting Learning:

  1. Consequences of a models behavior:

    • If model is reinforced, behavior is followed.

    • If model is punished, behavior is not followed.


  2. Consequences of the observer’s behavior:

    • If the observer is reinforced, the behavior continues.

    • If the observer is punished, behavior will not reduced.


  3. Characteristics of the model:

    • Learning is more likely from models who are competent, likeable, prestigious.

    • Studies: Fisher & Harris (1976)


  4. Observer’s age:

    • Coate & Hartup (1969):

    • Young children watch a film, model performed various acts.

    • Older observers recalled more of the model’s behavior compared to the younger kids.


  5. Observer’s learning history:

    • If a child’s aggressive behavior was reinforced prior to observational learning for aggressive learning, more likely to follow the aggressive behavior.


  6. Other:


    • Emotional state of the observer:

      • Positive mood results in higher probability to follow a model.

      • Negative mood results in a more rigid mindset. If following a behavior, it’ll be accurate.


    • Task difficulty:

      • The more difficult the task, the less learning is likely to occur during observation.

      • Results in need to watch the model more carefully.


    • Skilled vs Unskilled model:

      • Observing skilled model will result in better learning.


Theories of Observational Learning:

  1. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory:

    • Observational learning depends on 4 processes, which occur during or after observation.

      1. Attentional processes: How much one pays attention.

      2. Retentional processes: Helps the observer perform to aid recall.

      3. Motor reproductive processes: Ability to perform.

      4. Motivational processes: Expectations of reinforcement.


  2. Miller-Dollard Reinforcement Theory:

    • Changes in an observer’s behavior are due to the consequences of the observer’s behavior; not the models.

    • Their study indicates that learning occurs if the imitation pays off.