Final Exam Review

1. Washington’s Foreign Policies and Precedents

1.1 The Proclamation of Neutrality ($1793$)

• Context: The French Revolution escalated into a total war between the French Republic and a coalition of European monarchies led by Great Britain. The U.S. was under a legal obligation per the $1778$ Treaty of Alliance. However, the American military was non-existent, and the economy relied on British imports for tariff revenue ($90\%$ of income).

• The Policy: Issued despite Thomas Jefferson's objections, the proclamation declared the U.S. a neutral party. It prohibited Americans from providing assistance to any warring power and was eventually solidified by the Neutrality Act of $1794$, which criminalized any citizen enlisting in foreign service.

• Significance: It began the tradition of Isolationism, asserting that the young republic was too fragile to engage in European power struggles. This remained a core tenet of U.S. foreign policy for over a century.

1.2 The Citizen Genêt Affair ($1793$)

• Details: Edmond-Charles Genêt, the French minister to the U.S., violated diplomatic protocol by arriving in South Carolina and recruiting American privateers to attack British ships before even presenting his credentials to the President.

• Outcome: Genêt appealed to the public over Washington's head, which alienated even his supporters like Jefferson. Washington demanded his recall. Fearing execution by the Jacobins in France, Genêt was granted political asylum in America, ironically protected by the administration he insulted.

1.3 Jay’s Treaty ($1794$)

• Objectives: To resolve the British seizure of American merchant ships and the continued occupation of British forts in the Great Lakes region (a violation of the $1783$ Treaty of Paris).

• Provisions: Britain agreed to evacuate the Northwest Territory forts by June $1796$. In exchange, the U.S. granted Britain "most favored nation" trade status and agreed that pre-Revolutionary debts would be settled by a joint commission. Crucially, it did not stop the impressment of American sailors.

• Impact: The treaty was widely unpopular. Democratic-Republicans condemned it as a betrayal of Republicanism, yet it successfully delayed war with Britain for almost two decades.

1.4 Pinckney’s Treaty ($1795$)

• Context: Seeing the Anglo-American rapprochement in Jay's Treaty, Spain feared a secret alliance against their North American colonies.

• Provisions: Spain recognized the U.S. border at the $31^{st}$ parallel and, most importantly, granted the Right of Deposit in New Orleans. This allowed Western farmers to float goods down the Mississippi River and store them in New Orleans for ocean transport without paying Spanish duties (fees).

• Impact: It was a diplomatic triumph that encouraged westward expansion and solidified support for the federal government in the frontier.

2. The Whiskey Rebellion ($1791$-$1794$)

• The Financial Burden: Alexander Hamilton instituted a $0.07 per gallon excise tax. In the West, whiskey was not just a drink; it was a liquid currency used to trade for salt, sugar, and ammunition because grain was too bulky to transport over the Appalachians.

• The Uprising: Violence erupted in Western Pennsylvania when farmers refused to pay, tarring and feathering tax collectors. They invoked the slogan "No taxation without representation," claiming the tax was an unfair burden on the poor.

• The Strong Response: Militia Act of 1792 - Washington, donning his military uniform for the last time, led a massive force of $12,950$ militiamen to the region. The rebels dispersed before the army arrived.

• Significance: Unlike Shays' Rebellion under the Articles of Confederation, this proved the Constitution created a government with "energy"—capable of enforcing its laws through executive authority.

3. Hamilton’s Financial Plan

3.1 Report on Public Credit (1790)

• Funding at Par: Hamilton insisted on paying off all federal bonds at face value ($100\%$). This benefited speculators who bought bonds for pennies during the war but established the U.S. as a creditworthy nation.

• Assumption: The federal government legally adopted the $25 million debt of the individual states. Hamilton sought to bind the interests of wealthy creditors to the survival of the central government.

• Compromise of $1790$: To appease the South (which had mostly paid its debts), Hamilton agreed to relocate the national capital to a swampy site on the Potomac River (the future Washington, D.C.).

3.2 The Bank of the United States (1790)

• Purpose: Modeled after the Bank of England, it served as the federal government's fiscal agent, holding tax revenues and lending money to the government. It also managed the currency by regulating state banks.

• Constitutional Debate: Jefferson argued for Strict Construction, citing the $10^{th}$ Amendment (powers not delegated belong to the states). Hamilton argued for Loose Construction, citing the "Necessary and Proper Clause" (Article $I$, Section $8$), claiming the bank was essential for tax collection.

3.3 Report on Manufactures (1791)

• Aimed to stabilize the U.S. economy by the use of Excise Taxes and Tariffs

• Exercise tax - A tax on domestically made goods like whiskey, in order to raise federal rev

4. The Rise of Political Parties: Hamilton v. Jefferson

• Federalists: Led by Hamilton and Adams; favored a strong central government, a national bank, and an industrial future. They based their support in New England and among commercial interests. They generally favored Great Britain in foreign affairs.

• Democratic-Republicans: Led by Jefferson and Madison; advocated for states' rights, a strict interpretation of the Constitution, and an agrarian society. They drew support from the South and the West, viewing the French Revolution as a triumph of liberty.

5. Washington’s Farewell Address ($1796$)

• Composition: A valedictory speech published in newspapers rather than delivered orally. Hamilton provided the technical drafting.

• Warnings: He cautioned against "geographical discriminations" (sectionalism) and the "baneful effects of the spirit of party."

• Foreign Policy Advice: He urged the U.S. to "steer clear of permanent alliances" with any portion of the foreign world. He did not advocate for absolute isolation but for avoiding "entangling" political connections that would drag the U.S. into European wars.

6. The Alien & Sedition Acts ($1798$)

• The Acts: Passed by Federalists under John Adams during the war scare with France. The Naturalization Act changed the citizenship path from $5$ to $14$ years. The Sedition Act made it a crime to defame the government or president.

• Nullification: Jefferson and Madison responded with the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, arguing that the Constitution was a "compact" between states. Therefore, states had the right to "nullify" federal laws they deemed unconstitutional.

7. The Quasi-War ($1798$-$1800$)

• Causes: French privateers began seizing American merchant vessels in response to Jay's Treaty. Over $300$ ships were lost.

• The Conflict: An undeclared naval war. The U.S. Navy was officially recreated, and the Marines were established. Most combat occurred in the Caribbean.

• Resolution: The Convention of $1800$ ended the hostilities. France released the U.S. from the $1778$ alliance, effectively ending the only formal alliance the U.S. would have until $1949$.

8. The Election of $1800$

• The Results: Thomas Jefferson defeated John Adams, but a fluke in the Electoral College resulted in a tie between Jefferson and his running mate, Aaron Burr.

• The House Vote: The election went to the House of Representatives. After $35$ deadlocked ballots, Hamilton lobbied Federalists to support Jefferson over Burr, whom he considered unprincipled.

• Legacy: Known as the "Revolution of $1800$," it was the first time in modern history that power passed peacefully between opposing political parties. It also prompted the $12^{th}$ Amendment (separate ballots for President and VP).

9. Marbury v. Madison ($1803$)

• Context: Adams made "Midnight Appointments" of Federalists to ensure party influence in the judiciary. Secretary of State James Madison refused to deliver William Marbury's commission.

• The Ruling: Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that Marbury was entitled to the job but that the law authorizing the Court to compel Madison (the Judiciary Act of $1789$) was unconstitutional.

• Significance: Established Judicial Review, granting the Supreme Court the final power to interpret the Constitution.

10. The Louisiana Purchase ($1803$)

• The Transaction: Napoleon, having lost Haiti to a slave revolt led by Toussaint L'Ouverture and preparing for war in Europe, sold the entire region for $15 million (about $0.03 an acre).

• Jefferson's Compromise: Jefferson, a strict constructionist, used the executive's treaty-making power to justify the purchase, doubling the size of the nation and securing the vital port of New Orleans.

11. The War of $1812$

• Causes: British impressment of sailors, the Embargo Act of $1807$, and British support for Native American resistance in the West.

• The Hartford Convention ($1814$): New England Federalists met to discuss grievances, floating ideas of secession and proposing that declarations of war require a $2/3$ majority. Because the war ended shortly after, the Federalists were branded as traitors, leading to the party's extinction.

• Outcome: The Treaty of Ghent established a status quo ante bellum (the way things were before the war), but the war increased American manufacturing and fostered national pride.

12. The Monroe Doctrine ($1823$)

• Principles: Formulated by John Quincy Adams, it declared that the American continents were no longer open to European colonization. Any attempt by European powers to re-establish colonies in the Western Hemisphere would be viewed as an act of aggression.

• Legacy: It became the foundational statement of U.S. hegemony in the Americas.

13. The Missouri Compromise ($1820$)

• Terms: Devised by Henry Clay, it admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state. It prohibited slavery in the Louisiana Territory north of the $36^{\circ} 30'$ latitude line.

• Impact: It held the Union together for thirty years but highlighted the deep sectional rift over the "peculiar institution" of slavery.

14. The "Corrupt Bargain" of $1824$

• Context: Candidates Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and William Crawford all ran. Jackson won the popular and electoral plurality but not a majority.

• The Deal: Speaker of the House Henry Clay threw his support to Adams. Upon becoming President, Adams named Clay Secretary of State. Jackson claimed a "corrupt bargain" had been struck, fueling his successful campaign in $1828$.

15. Economic Diplomacy and Pre-War Acts (1806-1810

• The Embargo Act of 1807: Restricted trade with foreign nations to protect American interests, leading to significant economic consequences.

• The Non-Intercourse Act of 1809: Reopened trade with all countries except Britain and France, aiming to ease economic turmoil while maintaining pressure on the two nations.

• Macon's Bill No. 2 (1810): Offered trade concessions to either Britain or France based on the other nation's acknowledgment of U.S. neutrality, reflecting attempts to navigate international tensions.

• The War of 1812: Resulted from ongoing trade restrictions and maritime conflicts, ultimately leading to a stronger sense of American nationalism and military reputation.

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15.1 Non-Importation Act (1806)

• Specifics: A targeted measure that forbade the importation of certain British goods that could be produced domestically or imported from other nations.

• Intent: To pressure Great Britain into ending the impressment of American sailors and to respect American neutral rights without resorting to a total trade embargo or military conflict.

• Impact: It was largely symbolic and failed to significantly influence British policy, leading toward more drastic economic measures.

15.2 The Embargo Act (1809)

• Specifics: A comprehensive ban on all U.S. exports to foreign ports. It essentially grounded the American merchant marine and prohibited ships from leaving for foreign destinations.

• Intent: Thomas Jefferson intended this as "peaceable coercion." By depriving Britain and France of American foodstuffs and raw materials, he hoped to force them to recognize U.S. neutrality and top their maritime hostilities.

• Impact: The act was a disaster for the U.S. economy. New England’s shipping industry was decimated, unemployment rose, and agricultural prices in the South and West plummeted. It inadvertently prompted a surge in domestic manufacturing (as foreign goods were unavailable) but led to widespread smuggling and political backlash against the Democratic-Republicans.

15.3 The Non-Intercourse Act (1809)

• Specifics: This act repealed the broad Embargo Act and replaced it with a targeted ban. It reopened trade with all nations except Great Britain and France.

• Intent: To relieve the intense economic pressure on American merchants while maintaining a diplomatic boycott against the two primary belligerents of the Napoleonic Wars. It included a provision that if either nation ceased its violations of American rights, trade would be restored with that nation.

• Impact: It was nearly impossible to enforce, as American ships often sailed to neutral ports and then traded with Britain or France. It failed to change the behavior of either nation and was replaced by Macon’s Bill No. 2 in 18101810.