11 Chapter 11
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Life Span Development
Learning Objectives
Evaluate the evidence for sensory capacities, preferences, and reflexes in newborn infants.
Identify major physical, cognitive, and social/emotional differences among the prenatal period, infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood, and give examples of ways in which these three trajectories influence one another.
Differentiate Jean Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational), and critique Piaget’s theory using research from alternate approaches.
Debate the adaptive function of infant attachment, and analyze the roles of temperament, culture, and parenting in driving individual attachment styles.
Identify epigenetic processes, critical or sensitive periods, and the impact of experience on biological development.
Debate the research evidence for continuity versus discontinuity in the trajectories of physical, cognitive, and social/emotional development.
What is Your Earliest Memory?
Early autobiographical memories are typically formed between 3 and 5 years old.
The development of memory abilities is closely tied to brain changes during childhood, specifically in the hippocampus and frontal lobes during the third year of life, enhancing the ability to form long-term memories about sequences of events.
A child's sense of self is crucial for forming autobiographical memory, with self-recognition occurring as early as 18 months.
Cultural influences significantly impact the formation of autobiographical memories, as demonstrated in research contrasting European-Canadian and Chinese children.
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Figure 11.1: Cultural and Developmental Influences on the Recall of Early Childhood Memories
Research indicates European-Canadian children recalled more early childhood memories than Chinese children, with a notable decline in memory recall among Chinese participants between 11 and 14 years, indicative of childhood amnesia.
Cultural differences in maternal practices, such as elaborative reminiscing, affect memory consolidation and retention, with North American mothers often engaging in more detailed discussions about past events than their Chinese counterparts.
Understanding autobiographical memory development involves exploring biological, individual, developmental, social, and cultural contributions.
What Does It Mean to Develop?
The process of development includes growth or maturation correlated with behavior changes.
The interaction of three threads: physical, cognitive, and social/emotional development.
Questions often arise about the interplay of nature and nurture, whether development is gradual (continuity) or sudden (discontinuity), and how universal versus culture-specific aspects of development are.
Nature and Nurture Intertwined
Genes interact with environmental factors (diet, nurture, stress), which affect epigenetic changes.
Younger children display more similarities due to limited experiences, whereas older adults show greater variability due to diverse life experiences.
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Continuity vs. Discontinuity
Development can be viewed as a gradual spectrum (continuity) or as distinct, separate stages (discontinuity).
Gradual development shows features such as the slow maturation of temperament whereas abrupt changes are noted in milestones like walking.
What Does It Mean to Develop?
As children grow physically and gain mobility, they encounter new cognitive challenges that enhance their development.
Physical, cognitive, and emotional growth occurs simultaneously, influencing one another.
Figure 11.2: Continuity Versus Discontinuity in Development
Development is visualized as either continuous, like a rainbow, or discontinuous, like a staircase.
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Universal vs. Ecological Development
Universal psychologists seek common developmental traits across humanity while ecological psychologists analyze cultural and environmental influences on development.
Differences in how children develop behaviors, such as walking, are highlighted by cultural practices (e.g., Kenyan children walking earlier due to encouragement, while other cultures may delay developmental milestones).
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How Do We Change Prenatally?
The first two weeks post-conception reference the zygote phase, moving to the embryo phase from gestational weeks three to eight, leading to the fetal phase towards birth.
During prenatal development, three germ layers emerge: ectoderm (nervous system and skin), mesoderm (muscle and bone), endoderm (internal organs).
Significant milestones within gestational development include the differentiation of the central nervous system by week four and cell migration by week seven.
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Gene and Environment Interactions
Exposure to external factors can alter genetic expression, presenting risks (e.g., premature birth risks) and potential complications (e.g., developmental issues).
Saybie, a recorded micro preemie, exemplifies the extreme physical challenges during unexpected births (weighing less than 250 grams at birth).
Genetic Risks to Development
A higher likelihood of genetic abnormalities is present in older parents, with age-related factors influencing conditions like Down syndrome.
Environmental factors are critical during pregnancy; substances termed teratogens can adversely affect development.
Table 11.1: Examples of Some Common Teratogens and Their Effects
Lists effects such as physical and cognitive impairments from various drugs (e.g., alcohol and antidepressants).
Individuals with a history of environmental exposure may display heightened developmental issues in offspring, warranting caution during pregnancy.
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Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)
Characterized by a range of conditions resulting from maternal alcohol consumption during gestation, affecting physical and cognitive development.
Recommendations are made for careful consultation with healthcare providers about any medication use during pregnancy.
Summary on Prenatal and Newborn Development
Highlights major milestones, including the differentiation of the central nervous system, early foundation of sensory preferences, and memory formation within the newborn phase.
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Summary of Newborns’ Abilities
Suggestions on newborns’ reflexes and sensory capacities are vital for understanding early communication and socialization importance (e.g., crying, grasping).
Extensive overview of milestones in infant reflexes, sensory recognition, and the role of attachment styles formed in infancy.
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Summary Milestones of Prenatal and Newborn Development
Lists crucial developmental stages (zygote, embryo, fetus), issues of critical growth in neural development, with developments in reflexive abilities highlighted in newborns.
Recognition of the transition from infancy into subsequent developmental transitions, showcasing continuity and gradual evolution of overall cognitive and emotional growth.
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What Physical Changes Occur in Infancy and Childhood?
Physical growth is rapid in childhood, particularly in the first year, tripling birth weight and undergoing significant proportional changes.
Figure 11.11: Synaptic Connections and Pruning
Discusses pruning during development, how unused synapses are eliminated, emphasizing the requirement for stimulating environments to maintain cognitive functioning.
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Motor Development
Explores milestones in motor development, including controlled head movements leading to crawling and walking, and the variances due to genetics and environmental support.
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Gender Development in Childhood
Gender identity is influenced by both biological frameworks and environmental factors, demonstrating early preferences in toy selection rooted in innate inclinations.
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Development of Cognition During Infancy and Childhood
Outlines cognitive milestones according to Piaget's cognitive development stages, emphasizing the importance of playful interaction and constructive learning.
Figure 11.15: Zone of Proximal Development
Highlights Vygotsky's contribution to understanding cognitive development through social interaction and guided learning, contrasting with Piaget's model.
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Theory of Mind
Discusses the evolution of Theory of Mind amongst children and how it relates to the understanding of divergent perspectives, crucial for social development and implications of developmental disorders.
Social and Emotional Development
Details on attachment theory, examining methodologies through Ainsworth's studies that underline how attachment styles interact with parenting and socialization processes as children grow.
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Parenting Styles
Parenting approaches demonstrate different balances of support and regulation, with comparative assessments of outcomes in children based on parental styles.
Conclusion
Development involves complex and interrelated changes throughout the lifespan emphasizing the role of genetics, environment, cultural context, and social interactions in shaping behaviours, cognitive capabilities, and overall well-being.