AP Euro Semester 1 2024-2025

Unit I: The Emergence of Modern Thinking—The Renaissance & Exploration

KEY CONCEPT 1.1

The Rediscovery of Ancient Works and Observation of the Natural World

The rediscovery of texts from ancient Greece and Rome and a renewed focus on observing the natural world fundamentally altered how Europeans viewed themselves and their world. This intellectual awakening laid the foundation for the Renaissance, challenging medieval thought and inspiring advancements in art, science, and governance.

Renaissance Values and Ideals

Humanism: An intellectual movement that emphasized the study of classical texts, human potential, and achievements. Francesco Petrarch, known as the "Father of Humanism," rediscovered ancient Roman manuscripts and advocated for the study of humanities (grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry, and moral philosophy). Pico della Mirandola’s On the Dignity of Man argued for human free will and limitless potential.

Secularism: A focus on worldly rather than spiritual matters, reflected in Renaissance art, politics, and literature. For example, Niccolò Machiavelli’s The Prince detached political theory from religious morality, advocating pragmatic and sometimes ruthless leadership.

Individualism: Celebrated personal achievement and self-expression. Leon Battista Alberti embodied the Renaissance ideal of the "universal man" with accomplishments in art, architecture, and science. Baldassare Castiglione’s The Book of the Courtier outlined the qualities of a well-rounded individual, including intellect, physical ability, and manners.

Civic Humanism: Applied classical knowledge to governance and societal improvement. Civic humanists, often based in urban centers like Florence, emphasized public service and active participation in political life.

Centers of Power and Influence

Florence: The cradle of the Renaissance, renowned for its banking, trade, and cultural innovations. The Medici family’s patronage supported artists like Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.

Venice: A maritime power known for its advanced shipbuilding industry and control of trade routes.

Papal Banking: Financial systems heavily influenced by the Catholic Church, which played a central role in funding Renaissance art and architecture, including the construction of St. Peter’s Basilica.

Portuguese Slave Trade: As part of early exploration efforts, Portuguese merchants began the transatlantic slave trade, establishing colonies like Brazil centered on sugar production.

Key Thinkers and Writers

Francesco Petrarch: Rediscovered and popularized classical texts, emphasizing their relevance to contemporary life.

Pico della Mirandola: His On the Dignity of Man became a manifesto of human potential and intellectual freedom.

Leon Battista Alberti: A polymath whose works spanned architecture, art theory, and mathematics, embodying the ideal Renaissance man.

Niccolò Machiavelli: The Prince offered a pragmatic approach to governance, focusing on power dynamics and statecraft.

Laura Cereta: A feminist writer who advocated for women’s education and intellectual equality.

Art and Patronage

Patronage: Wealthy individuals and institutions funded art to display power and piety. For example, the Medici family commissioned works by Michelangelo and Botticelli.

Princely Courts: Nobles competed to attract the best artists and scholars, turning courts into cultural hubs.

Leonardo da Vinci: A quintessential Renaissance polymath, he created masterpieces like Mona Lisa and The Last Supper, blending scientific observation with artistic skill.

Michelangelo: Known for sculpting David and painting the Sistine Chapel ceiling, his work epitomized the humanist focus on physical beauty and divine inspiration.

Raphael: Celebrated for his harmonious compositions, including The School of Athens, which depicted classical philosophers in an idealized setting.

Brunelleschi: Architect of the Florence Cathedral’s dome, a feat of engineering and artistic ingenuity.

Jan Van Eyck: A pioneer of oil painting, known for The Arnolfini Portrait, which showcased meticulous detail and symbolism.

Pieter Bruegel the Elder: Northern Renaissance artist famous for depictions of peasant life, such as The Harvesters.

Social and Political Dynamics

Urban Nobility: Wealthy elites who combined economic power with political authority, driving cultural and artistic developments in city-states like Florence.

Borgia Family: A powerful and controversial family deeply involved in Renaissance politics and the papacy.

Dominican Friar Girolamo Savonarola: Religious reformer in Florence who condemned the excesses of the Renaissance, leading to the Bonfire of the Vanities.

Technological and Intellectual Advances

Johann Gutenberg: Invented the movable-type printing press, revolutionizing the spread of knowledge. The rapid dissemination of texts, such as Erasmus’s Praise of Folly and Thomas More’s Utopia, spurred intellectual exchange and reform.

The Printing Press: Increased literacy and access to books, enabling the spread of Renaissance and Reformation ideas.

Northern Renaissance Thought

Christian Humanism: Merged classical learning with religious reform. Desiderius Erasmus critiqued Church corruption in Praise of Folly, advocating for a return to Christian morality. Thomas More’s Utopia imagined an ideal society based on equality and communal living.

Race and Slavery in Italy

The Renaissance era saw increasing interaction between Europe, Africa, and Asia through trade and exploration. In Italian city-states like Venice and Genoa, enslaved peoples were part of households and economies, reflecting a growing global interconnectedness and the commodification of human lives.

KEY CONCEPT 1.3

The Age of Exploration

The Ottoman Empire Expansion: The Ottomans controlled key trade routes in the Eastern Mediterranean, forcing Europeans to seek alternative pathways for trade.

1453—Siege of Constantinople: Marked the fall of the Byzantine Empire; the Ottomans captured the city, reshaping European access to Asian markets.

Genoa and Venice—Impact on Trade and Slavery: Genoa and Venice dominated Mediterranean trade and were key players in early forms of slavery, trading in goods and human labor.

Ptolemy’s Geography: Rediscovered ancient maps that provided a distorted but influential guide for Renaissance explorers.

Compass and Astrolabe: Navigational tools that allowed sailors to determine direction and latitude, crucial for long-distance exploration.

Cannon and Caravel: Cannons offered military superiority, and the caravel’s advanced design allowed for faster and more reliable sea travel.

Portugal—Overseas Empire: Portugal led the Age of Exploration, establishing a global trading empire under the guidance of Prince Henry the Navigator.

Prince Henry the Navigator: Portuguese prince who sponsored expeditions along the African coast, laying the groundwork for European colonialism.

Lisbon: The economic hub of Portugal’s trading empire, connecting Europe to Asia and Africa.

Portuguese Brazil: Became a major colony focused on sugar cultivation, relying heavily on enslaved labor.

Treaty of Tordesillas: A 1494 agreement dividing the New World between Spain and Portugal, sanctioned by the pope.

Key Explorers and Conquests

Columbus: Initiated European contact with the Americas in 1492, leading to widespread exploration and colonization.

Conquistadors: Spanish explorers like Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro who conquered Indigenous empires in the Americas.

Bartholomew de Las Casas: Spanish missionary who condemned the mistreatment of Indigenous peoples, advocating for reform.

Cortés and the Aztec Empire: Cortés defeated the Aztec Empire, seizing Tenochtitlán and claiming Mexico for Spain.

Montezuma and Tenochtitlan: Aztec ruler and capital city; both fell to Cortés and his forces in 1521.

Pizarro and the Inca Empire: Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire in Peru, exploiting its wealth and labor systems.

Global Trade and Impact

Columbian Exchange: Widespread exchange of goods, crops, animals, and diseases between the Old and New Worlds.

Sugar: A lucrative cash crop that drove the transatlantic slave trade and shaped colonial economies.

Transatlantic Slave Trade: Forced movement of Africans to the Americas, fueling the plantation economy.

Viceroyalties: Spanish administrative divisions in the Americas, such as New Spain and Peru.

Spread of Disease on Natives: Diseases like smallpox decimated Indigenous populations, aiding European conquest.

KEY CONCEPT 1.5

The Struggle for Sovereignty

Lorenzo Medici: A leading patron of the arts and de facto ruler of Florence, representing the height of Renaissance patronage.

Patronage: Financial support for artists and scholars, demonstrating the power and cultural priorities of rulers like the Medici.

Ferdinand and Isabella: Monarchs who unified Spain, completed the Reconquista, and sponsored Columbus’s voyages.

Reconquista: The centuries-long effort to drive Muslims out of Spain, culminating in 1492 with the fall of Granada.

Spanish Inquisition: Established to enforce Catholic orthodoxy, targeting Jews, Muslims, and heretics.

Hermandades: Local militias in Spain that enforced royal authority and suppressed dissent.

New Christians/Conversos: Jews and Muslims who converted to Christianity, often under duress, during the Spanish Inquisition.

Henry VII—Tudor Monarchs: Strengthened the monarchy in England by consolidating power after the Wars of the Roses.

The Court of the Star Chamber: English court used by Henry VII to control the nobility through secretive and often harsh proceedings.

Valois Monarchs: French royal dynasty that strengthened central authority and navigated internal and external conflicts.

Concordat of Bologna: Agreement giving the French king control over appointments of bishops, strengthening royal authority over the Church.

Princely Courts: Centers of power where Renaissance rulers displayed wealth and cultural patronage.

Hapsburg-Valois Wars: A series of conflicts between the French and the Hapsburgs over control of territories in Italy and Europe.

French Wars of Religion and Related Events

French Wars of Religion

A series of conflicts (1562–1598) between Catholics and Huguenots (French Protestants). The struggle involved religious divisions, political power struggles, and the role of monarchs.

Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559)

Ended the long-running Habsburg-Valois Wars between France and Spain. France gave up its claims in Italy, and Spain became dominant in Italy. This treaty set the stage for internal conflicts in France.

Huguenots

French Calvinists who were concentrated in urban areas like Paris and major southern cities. They were often of noble status and politically influential, sparking tensions with the Catholic monarchy.

Concordat of Bologna (1516)

Agreement between King Francis I of France and Pope Leo X, giving the French crown control over appointing bishops and abbots. Strengthened royal authority but prevented France from breaking with the Catholic Church.

Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (1572)

A targeted massacre of Huguenots in Paris ordered by Catherine de’ Medici. Tens of thousands were killed across France, escalating the religious wars.

The War of Three Henrys (1584–1598)

Conflict between Henry III (Catholic king of France), Henry of Navarre (Huguenot leader), and Henry of Guise (Catholic League). Ended with the ascension of Henry IV.

The Edict of Nantes (1598)

Issued by Henry IV, granting Huguenots religious toleration and rights to fortified towns. It helped end the French Wars of Religion.

"Paris is worth a mass"

Attributed to Henry IV when he converted to Catholicism to secure the French throne, signifying the prioritization of political unity over religious convictions.

Politique

A ruler or political figure who prioritized political stability and unity over religious uniformity. Examples include Henry IV of France and Elizabeth I of England.

The Dutch Revolt and Related Events

The Dutch Revolt (1568–1648)

Revolt of the Protestant northern provinces against Catholic Spain, led by Philip II. Resulted in the independence of the Dutch Republic (recognized in 1648).

Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor who abdicated in 1556, dividing his empire. His son Philip II inherited Spain, the Netherlands, and American colonies.

Philip II

King of Spain, defender of Catholicism, and opponent of Protestant forces in Europe. His reign saw the Spanish Armada and the Dutch Revolt.

"Price Revolution" in Spain

Inflation caused by the influx of silver and gold from the Americas. Hurt Spain's economy by increasing prices and reducing the competitiveness of Spanish goods.

Union of Utrecht (1579)

Alliance of northern Dutch provinces declaring independence from Spain. Led to the creation of the Dutch Republic.

The Thirty Years’ War and Related Events

Turning Point

A devastating conflict (1618–1648) that began as a religious war but became a political struggle involving most European powers. Ended with the Peace of Westphalia.

Peace of Augsburg (1555)

Allowed German princes to choose Catholicism or Lutheranism for their states but excluded other Protestant denominations like Calvinism.

Protestant Union vs. Catholic League

Competing alliances of Protestant and Catholic states in the Holy Roman Empire. Their rivalry contributed to the outbreak of the Thirty Years’ War.

The Defenestration of Prague (1618)

Incident where Protestant nobles threw Catholic officials out a window in Bohemia, sparking the Thirty Years’ War.

Four Phases of the Thirty Years’ War

1. Bohemian Phase: Protestant revolt in Bohemia crushed by Catholic forces.

2. Danish Phase: Danish intervention ended in Catholic victories.

3. Swedish Phase: Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden turned the tide for Protestants.

4. French Phase: France entered on the Protestant side to oppose Habsburg power.

Gustavus Adolphus

Swedish king and military leader who supported Protestant forces. Introduced innovative military tactics.

The Peace of Westphalia (1648)

Treaty ending the Thirty Years’ War. Recognized Calvinism, expanded state sovereignty, and redrew European borders.

KEY CONCEPT 1.3: Religious Pluralism and Challenges to Unity

Reformation

The religious movement challenging Catholic doctrine, practices, and authority, leading to the establishment of Protestant churches.

Anticlericalism

Criticism of clergy corruption, immorality, and ignorance.

Pluralism and Absenteeism

Church officials holding multiple offices (pluralism) and neglecting their duties (absenteeism).

Johann Tetzel

Monk famous for selling indulgences, sparking Martin Luther’s 95 Theses.

Martin Luther

German theologian who initiated the Reformation with his 95 Theses, rejecting indulgences and emphasizing salvation by faith alone.

Indulgences

Payments to the Church to reduce punishment for sins. Luther’s opposition to this practice was central to his critique of the Catholic Church.

95 Theses (1517)

Luther’s list of grievances against the Catholic Church, posted on the church door in Wittenberg.

Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor who opposed the Reformation and supported Catholicism.

Protestant

Term for followers of reform movements rejecting Catholic authority.

German Peasants’ War (1524–1525)

Revolt inspired by Luther’s ideas but condemned by him as overly radical.

Swabian Peasant Revolt

Part of the German Peasants’ War; highlighted tensions between peasants and landlords.

Protestants and Marriage

Reformers advocated clerical marriage and emphasized the spiritual equality of spouses.

Argula von Grumbach

Female writer and supporter of Lutheran ideas.

Anabaptism

Radical Protestant sect emphasizing adult baptism and separation of church and state.

Habsburg Dynasty

Dominant European dynasty, rulers of the Holy Roman Empire and Spain.

Peace of Augsburg

Allowed German princes to determine the religion of their territories.

John Knox

Reformer who established the Presbyterian Church in Scotland.

John Calvin

Protestant reformer who emphasized predestination and established a theocracy in Geneva.

Geneva, Switzerland

Center of Calvinist reform.

Institutes of the Christian Religion

Calvin’s theological work outlining Protestant doctrine.

Predestination

Belief that God has predetermined who will be saved.

Mary I (“Bloody Mary”)

Catholic queen of England who persecuted Protestants.

The Presbyterian Church

Scottish Calvinist church.

Henry VIII

English king who established the Anglican Church after breaking with the Catholic Church.

Anglican Church

Church of England, established by Henry VIII.

The Supremacy Act (1534)

Declared the king the head of the Church of England.

The Book of Common Prayer

Standardized worship in the Anglican Church.

Thomas More

Catholic martyr who opposed Henry VIII’s break with Rome.

Elizabeth I

Protestant queen of England who established religious compromise.

William Shakespeare

Playwright whose works reflect Renaissance humanism and religious themes.

Elizabethan Settlement

Compromise establishing moderate Protestantism in England.

Spanish Armada (1588)

Philip II’s failed attempt to invade England and restore Catholicism.

Catholic/Counter-Reformation

The Council of Trent (1545–1563)

Reaffirmed Catholic doctrines and addressed abuses.

New Religious Orders

Jesuits: Founded by Ignatius Loyola, focused on education and missionary work. Ursuline Order of Nuns: Focused on women’s education.

Ignatius Loyola

Founder of the Jesuits, author of Spiritual Exercises.

Spiritual Exercises

Guidebook for personal devotion and spiritual discipline.

Baroque Art

Religious art emphasizing emotion and grandeur.

Peter Paul Rubens

Baroque painter known for dynamic compositions.

Angela Merici

Founder of the Ursuline Order, advocating women’s education.

The Holy Office

Catholic agency enforcing doctrinal orthodoxy.

The Index of Prohibited Books

List of banned books deemed heretical by the Catholic Church.

KEY CONCEPT 1.4: Commercial and Agricultural Capitalism

Witch Hunts

Persecution of individuals accused of witchcraft, reflecting societal tensions.

Anabaptism and Women

Anabaptists advocated for some gender equality in religious practices.

Angela Merici and Ursuline Nuns

Pioneers in women’s education and religious devotion.

Unit III: Absolutism vs. Constitutional

Chapter 15—Essential Vocabulary

KEY CONCEPT 2.1

Impact of Absolute Monarchies

Absolutism: Political doctrine emphasizing centralized power in a single monarch who rules by divine right, accountable only to God.

Divine Right: Belief that monarchs are God’s representatives on Earth and derive authority from Him, not the people. Promoted by thinkers like Bishop Bossuet.

France (Western Europe)

Henry IV: Established stability in France through policies like the Edict of Nantes (1598), which granted religious toleration to Huguenots, fostering internal peace.

Nobles of the Robe: Bureaucratic nobility who supported royal centralization and administrative reforms, as opposed to traditional warrior nobles.

Louis XIII: Centralized power with Cardinal Richelieu’s help, reducing noble influence.

Cardinal Richelieu: Key advisor to Louis XIII. Strengthened the monarchy through the intendant system (royal officials overseeing provinces) and undermined the power of Huguenots (e.g., the Siege of La Rochelle).

Louis XIV “The Sun King”: Embodied absolute monarchy. Expanded royal authority, built Versailles as a symbol of his power, and centralized decision-making.

The Fronde: Series of uprisings by nobles and the public against centralization under Mazarin, shaping Louis XIV’s belief in strict control.

Versailles: Lavish palace symbolizing absolutism and control over the nobility. The Hall of Mirrors displayed France’s wealth and power.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert: Finance Minister who advanced mercantilism by fostering industries, regulating trade, and supporting the French East India Company.

Mercantilism: Economic policy promoting state control of trade, tariffs, and colonial expansion to strengthen national power.

Louvois: Secretary of War under Louis XIV. Reorganized the army and implemented professional training, making France a military power.

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685): Louis XIV’s crackdown on religious dissent weakened the economy by expelling Protestant artisans and merchants.

French Classicism: Cultural movement emphasizing classical art and literature, exemplified by Molière’s plays and the architecture of Versailles.

The War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714): Conflict over the Spanish throne. Ended with the Treaty of Utrecht, curbing French dominance and redistributing power in Europe.

Baroque Art: Dramatic, elaborate style reflecting absolutism’s grandeur. Artists like Rubens and composers like Johann Sebastian Bach flourished.

Spain

Price Revolution: Economic inflation caused by silver influx from the Americas, weakening Spain’s economy.

Spanish Hapsburg Inbreeding: Contributed to the dynasty’s decline due to health issues and weak rulers.

Spain’s Downfall: Overspending on wars, inefficient administration, and loss of key territories eroded Spanish power.

Eastern Europe

Ottoman Turks

Millet System: Allowed religious minorities autonomy in exchange for loyalty to the sultan.

Austria

Hapsburgs: Dominated Central Europe; sought to unify diverse territories post-30 Years’ War.

Battle of White Mountain (1620): Key Hapsburg victory in Bohemia, consolidating Catholic dominance.

Charles VI and Pragmatic Sanction: Secured the inheritance of his daughter, Maria Theresa, ensuring Hapsburg control over diverse lands.

Prussia

Junkers: Landowning nobility who supported Frederick William in exchange for control over peasants.

The Great Elector: Centralized power in Prussia, fostering a professional army and bureaucracy.

King Frederick William “The Soldier’s King”: Militarized Prussia, creating the “Sparta of the North.”

Russia

Boyars: Russian nobility weakened under Tsarist centralization.

Michael Romanov: Established the Romanov dynasty, stabilizing Russia after the Time of Troubles.

Peter the Great: Modernized and westernized Russia through military reforms, the establishment of St. Petersburg, and policies like the Beard Tax.

The Great Northern War (1700-1721): Russia’s victory over Sweden secured dominance in the Baltic region.

Challenges to Absolutism: Constitutionalism

England

Constitutionalism: A system of governance where power is limited by law, contrasting with absolutism.

James I: Advocated for divine right in True Law of Free Monarchy. Opposed Puritan calls for reform (e.g., “No bishop, no king”).

Charles I: Clashed with Parliament over finances, leading to the Long Parliament and the English Civil War. Executed in 1649.

Oliver Cromwell: Established the Protectorate, a military dictatorship. Enforced Puritan morality and passed the Navigation Act (1651) to challenge Dutch trade dominance.

Glorious Revolution (1688): Overthrew James II, establishing William and Mary as constitutional monarchs. The English Bill of Rights formalized parliamentary supremacy.

John Locke: In Second Treatise of Civil Government, argued for natural rights and government by consent.

Colonial Empires and Diplomacy Post-1648

Dutch East India Company: Key player in global trade, challenging Spanish and Portuguese dominance.

Navigation Act (1651): Promoted English shipping and trade by restricting foreign ships.

Anglo-Dutch Wars: Series of conflicts over trade dominance, reflecting commercial competition.

War of Spanish Succession: Ended with the Treaty of Utrecht, redistributing European power and colonial territories.

Great Northern War: Shifted Baltic dominance from Sweden to Russia, bolstering Peter the Great’s ambitions.

KEY CONCEPT 1.4

Society and Economy

Dutch Hegemony: Dominated trade and finance in the 17th century, exemplified by the Dutch East India Company.

Dutch Baroque: Art style emphasizing realism and daily life, seen in works by Rembrandt and Vermeer.

Mercantilism: Continued to shape European economies, prioritizing colonial expansion and state-controlled trade.

Unit IV: Towards a New Worldview—The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment

Topic: Scientific Revolution

KEY CONCEPT 1.1

--The rediscovery of works from ancient Greece and Rome and observation of the natural world changed many Europeans’ views of their world.

Astronomy and Challenges to Authority

• Aristotle: Greek philosopher whose geocentric model of the universe placed Earth at the center of all celestial motion.

• Ptolemy’s Geography: Ancient text that influenced Renaissance cartography; introduced longitude and latitude but contained inaccuracies.

• Geocentric Theory: The traditional view, supported by the Church, that Earth was the universe’s center.

• Copernicus: Proposed the heliocentric model where the sun, not Earth, is the center of the solar system.

  • On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres: Published posthumously to avoid persecution.

• Tycho Brahe: Built sophisticated observatories and collected detailed astronomical data.

• Johannes Kepler: Used Brahe’s data to formulate laws of planetary motion, including elliptical orbits.

• Galileo:

  • Developed the experimental method to test hypotheses.

  • Improved the telescope and observed moons orbiting Jupiter, challenging geocentrism.

  • Published Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, supporting heliocentrism, leading to trial by the Inquisition.

• Isaac Newton:

  • Unified physics and astronomy with the Law of Universal Gravitation.

  • Published Principia Mathematica, synthesizing previous discoveries.

Anatomical and Medical Discoveries

• Galen: Ancient physician whose theories dominated medieval medicine.

• William Harvey: Discovered the circulation of blood and the role of the heart as a pump.

• Andreas Vesalius:

  • Published On the Fabric of the Human Body, a groundbreaking anatomical text.

  • Conducted dissections that refuted Galenic anatomy.

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

• Francis Bacon:

  • Advocated for empiricism, emphasizing observation and experimentation.

  • Promoted inductive reasoning: deriving general principles from specific observations.

• René Descartes:

  • Developed deductive reasoning: using logic to derive conclusions from general principles.

  • Introduced Cartesian dualism, separating mind and body.

• Scientific Method: Combined Bacon’s empiricism and Descartes’ rationalism to formalize experimentation.

• Magic and Alchemy: Influenced early scientists who sought hidden natural laws.

Topic: Enlightenment

KEY CONCEPT 2.3

--The popularization and dissemination of the Scientific Revolution and application of its methods to political, social, and ethical issues led to an increased, although not unchallenged, emphasis on reason in European culture.

Rational and Political Thought

• Rationalism: Belief in reason as the primary source of knowledge.

• John Locke:

  • Essay Concerning Human Understanding: Introduced sensationalism, the idea that knowledge comes from sensory experience.

  • Two Treatises of Government: Argued for natural rights (life, liberty, property) and the social contract.

• Montesquieu:

  • The Spirit of Laws: Advocated separation of powers to prevent tyranny.

• Voltaire:

  • Critiqued organized religion and promoted freedom of speech and tolerance.

  • Treatise on Tolerance: Advocated religious tolerance.

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau:

  • The Social Contract: Introduced the concept of general will, prioritizing collective over individual interests.

  • Emile: Explored education and natural human development.

• Mary Wollstonecraft:

  • A Vindication of the Rights of Woman: Criticized Rousseau’s views on women and advocated for gender equality.

Dissemination of Ideas

• Philosophes: Intellectuals who promoted Enlightenment principles, including Diderot, d’Alembert, and Condorcet.

• The Encyclopedia: Edited by Diderot and d’Alembert, spread Enlightenment ideas widely.

• Deism: Belief in a rational God and rejection of organized religion’s authority.

• New Public Venues:

  • Salons: Hosted by women like Madame Geoffrin to facilitate intellectual exchange.

  • Coffeehouses, Academies, Lending Libraries: Centers for discussion and dissemination of ideas.

• Printed Materials: Newspapers, books, pamphlets, and periodicals popularized Enlightenment concepts.

Art and Culture

• Rococo Art: Emphasized light, playful themes reflecting aristocratic life.

• Shift from Religious Themes:

  • Focused on private life and the public good, aligning with Enlightenment ideals.

• Childcare and Education:

  • Wet-nursing and high infant mortality rates influenced societal attitudes.

  • Rousseau’s Emile emphasized child-centered education.

Topic: Enlightened Absolutism

KEY CONCEPT 2.1

--Different models of political sovereignty affected the relationship among states and between states and individuals.

Experiments in Enlightened Absolutism

Austria:

• Maria Theresa: Centralized administration and reduced serfdom.

• Joseph II:

  • Abolished serfdom and promoted religious tolerance for Jews and Protestants.

  • Reforms faced resistance and were reversed after his death.

Prussia:

• Frederick the Great:

  • Modernized bureaucracy and abolished torture.

  • Promoted agricultural innovation, including the potato.

  • Limited Enlightenment principles: maintained serfdom and excluded Jews from tolerance policies.

Russia:

• Catherine the Great:

  • Embraced Enlightenment ideas by publishing the Encyclopedia in Russia.

  • Expanded territory through Partition of Poland and conquest of the Caucasus.

  • Limited reform after Pugachev’s Rebellion, prioritizing noble support.

European Jews

• Joseph II’s Reforms: Limited progress with tolerance policies for Jewish communities.

Unit V: The Expansion of Europe - Economic & Social Expansion

Chapter 17 - Essential Vocabulary

KEY CONCEPT 2.2: The expansion of European commerce accelerated the growth of a worldwide economic network.

1. Open-field system: Traditional agricultural practice where land was divided into strips and worked communally. It was inefficient and prone to exhaustion of the soil.

2. Crop rotation: System of rotating different crops to restore soil fertility and improve productivity.

3. Agricultural Revolution: A period in the 18th century characterized by innovations in farming, leading to increased food production and population growth.

4. Enclosure: The consolidation of common lands into private properties, often fenced off, which transformed small farmers into wage laborers.

5. The Dutch and the Agricultural Revolution: The Dutch pioneered agricultural innovations such as drainage systems and intensified farming techniques.

6. Cornelius Vermuyden: Dutch engineer who introduced large-scale drainage projects in England to reclaim marshlands for agriculture.

7. Jethro Tull: Invented the seed drill, which efficiently planted seeds in rows, boosting agricultural productivity.

8. Turnip Townshend: Promoted crop rotation involving turnips and clover, which replenished nitrogen in the soil.

9. The Enclosure Acts (1760s-1815): Laws passed in Britain to privatize common lands, favoring large landowners.

10. Tenant Farmers: Farmers who rented land from wealthy landowners, often practicing market-oriented agriculture.

11. Arthur Young: Agricultural writer who advocated for enclosure and new farming methods.

12. Market-Oriented Estate Agriculture: Large estates focused on producing crops for sale rather than subsistence.

13. Landless Proletariat: Rural workers who lost access to common lands due to enclosure and became dependent on wages.

14. Proletarianization: Transition of rural workers from independent farming to wage labor.

The Cottage Industry and Proto-Industrialization
15. Cottage Industry: Early industrial production system where goods, especially textiles, were made in peasant homes.
16. Putting-out System: Merchant capitalist supplied raw materials to rural workers who processed them and returned the finished goods.
17. Weaver/Spinsters: Key roles in the textile production process; spinsters spun thread, while weavers produced cloth.
18. Life of cottage workers: Often exploited by merchant capitalists, working long hours with minimal pay.
19. Merchant capitalists’ opinion of workers: Viewed workers as lazy and “idle,” often pushing for stricter controls.
20. Industrious Revolution: Shift in the late 17th-18th centuries where households worked harder and produced more for market exchange.

Economic Thought and Systems
21. Adam Smith: Philosopher who advocated for free-market capitalism in The Wealth of Nations.
22. Economic Liberalism: Belief in free markets and minimal government interference in the economy.
23. Capitalism: Economic system based on private property, profit, and competitive markets.
24. Mercantilism: Economic policy emphasizing government control of trade to accumulate wealth.
25. Navigation Acts: English laws restricting colonial trade to benefit England’s economy.

Conflicts and Global Trade
26. Anglo-Dutch Wars: Wars over trade dominance between England and the Netherlands.
27. The War of Spanish Succession: Conflict over the Spanish throne and trade routes, resolved by the Treaty of Utrecht.
28. The War of Austrian Succession: War involving European powers vying for control of territories.
29. The Seven Years’ War: Global conflict between Britain and France, resulting in British dominance in North America and India.
30. Treaty of Paris (1763): Ended the Seven Years’ War; marked Britain’s rise as a colonial power.

The Atlantic Economy and Slave Trade
31. The Atlantic Economy: Network of trade connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas, centered on sugar, tobacco, and slaves.
32. The Atlantic Slave Trade: Forced migration of Africans to the Americas to work on plantations.
33. Triangular Trade: Trade system involving Europe, Africa, and the Americas, exchanging slaves, raw materials, and goods.
34. Sugar: Key cash crop of the Americas, driving the Atlantic slave trade.
35. Olaudah Equiano: Former slave whose autobiography exposed the horrors of slavery.
36. William Wilberforce: British abolitionist who led efforts to end the transatlantic slave trade.

Asia and the Pacific
37. The Dutch and the Indian Ocean: Dutch established dominance in the spice trade through the Dutch East India Company.
38. British East India Company: British trading company that laid the foundation for British rule in India.
39. Australia and James Cook: Explorer who charted the Pacific and claimed Australia for Britain.

Chapter 18 - Essential Vocabulary

KEY CONCEPT 2.4: The experiences of everyday life were shaped by demographic, environmental, medical, and technological changes.

Family and Marriage

1. Apprenticeships: Training system for young men to learn trades, essential for future employment.

2. Life of a servant girl: Domestic work offered young women limited opportunities but was a common employment path.

3. Marriage of the poor: Delayed due to financial instability; couples often waited to marry until they could support a family.

4. Community Controls: Local customs and informal regulations aimed at maintaining social order, especially regarding sexuality and marriage.

5. Charivari: Public shaming rituals to enforce community norms.

Social Changes
6. Illegitimacy explosion: Increase in births outside of marriage in the 18th century, reflecting changing social norms.
7. Prostitution: Widespread but increasingly regulated by authorities.
8. Homosexuality in the 18th century: Criminalized but persisted discreetly.
9. Consumerism: Growth of material culture and focus on personal goods and comfort.
10. Consumer Revolution: Increased demand for luxury items like porcelain, mirrors, and fashion accessories.

Health and Medicine
11. Edward Jenner: Developed the smallpox vaccine, pioneering immunization.
12. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu: Introduced smallpox inoculation to Europe after observing the practice in the Ottoman Empire.
13. Madame du Coudray: Wrote Manual on the Art of Childbirth to improve midwifery practices.
14. Apothecaries: Early pharmacists offering remedies and medicines.
15. Midwives: Women who assisted in childbirth, often clashing with male physicians.
16. Faith Healers: Relied on spiritual practices to cure ailments.

Religion and Leisure
17. Methodists: Religious movement founded by John Wesley emphasizing personal faith and morality.
18. Pietism: Protestant revival movement focusing on individual piety and emotional devotion.
19. Carnival: Pre-Lenten celebration marked by feasting, dancing, and revelry.