Group Dynamics Midterms

Group Dynamics Chapter 1

✦ Groups

- “an entity comprised of individuals who come together for a common purpose and whose behaviors

in the group are guided by a set of shared values and norms,” (Haynes, 1998).

- Two or more individuals who are connected by and within social relationships.

- Groups come in a staggering assortment of shapes and sizes, from dyads (two members) and triads (three members) to huge crowds, mobs, and assemblies (Simmel, 1902).

Still others suggest that a shared purpose or goal is what turns aGroup Dynamics

✦ Groups

“an entity comprised of individuals who come together for a common purpose and whose behaviors in the group are guided by a set of shared values and norms,” (Haynes, 1998).

Two or more individuals who are connected by and within social relationships.

Groups come in a staggering assortment of shapes and sizes, from dyads (two members) and triads (three members) to huge crowds, mobs, and assemblies (Simmel, 1902).

Still others suggest that a shared purpose or goal is what turns a mere aggregate of individuals into a bona fide group. Even the minimal number of members needed for a true group is debated, with some definitions requiring three members but others only two (Moreland, 2010; Williams, 2010).

✦ Categorization:

“Two or more individuals ... [who] perceive themselves to be members of the same social category”

(Turner, 1982, p. 15)

✦ Communication:

“Three or more people...who (a) think of themselves as a group, (b) are interdependent (e.g., with regard to shared goals or behaviors that a"ect one another), and (c) communicate (interact) with one another (via face-to-face or technological means)” (Frey & Konieczka, 2010, p. 317).

✦ Influence:

“Two or more persons who are interacting with one another in such a manner that each person

influences and is influenced by each other person” (Shaw, 1981, p. 454). ✦ Interdependence:

“A dynamic whole based on interdependence rather than similarity” (Lewin, 1948, p. 184).

✦ Interrelations:

“An aggregation of two or more people who are to some degree in dynamic interrelation with one another” (McGrath, 1984, p. 8).

✦ Psychological significance:

“A psychological group is any number of people who interact with each other, are psychologically

“A psychological group is any number of people who interact with each other, are psychologically

aware of each other, and perceive themselves to be in a group” (Pennington, 2002, p. 3). ✦ Relations:

“Individuals who stand in certain relations to each other, for example, as sharing a common purpose or having a common intentionality, or acting together, or at least having a common interest” (Gould, 2004, p. 119).

✦ Shared identity:

“Two or more people possessing a common social identification and whose existence as a group is

recognized by a third party” (Brown, 2000, p. 19). ✦ Shared tasks and goals:

“Three or more people who work together interdependently on an agreed-upon activity or goal” (Keyton, 2002, p. 5).

✦ Size:

“Two or more people” (Williams, 2010, p. 269).

✦ Social unit:

“Persons who recognize that they constitute a meaningful social unit, interact on that basis, and are committed to that social unity” (Fine, 2012, p. 21; Kerr & Tindale, 2014).

✦ Structure:

“A social unit which consists of a number of individuals who stand in (more or less) definite status and role relationships to one another and which possesses a set of values or norms of its own regulating the behavior of individual members, at least in matters of consequence to the group” (Sherif & Sherif, 1956, p. 144).

✦ Systems:

“An intact social system, complete with boundaries, interdependence for some shared purpose, and

di"erentiated member roles” (Hackman & Katz, 2010, p. 1210). Varieties of Group

1. Primary Group

A small, long-term group characterized by frequent interaction, solidarity, and high levels of interdependence among members that substantially influences the attitudes, values, and social outcomes of its members.

These groups profoundly influence the behavior, feelings, and judgments of their members, for members spend much of their time interacting with one another, usually in face-to-face settings with many of the other members present. Even when the group is dispersed, members nonetheless feel they are still “in” the group, and they consider the group to be a very important part of their lives.

2. Social Group

A relatively small number of individuals who interact with one another over an extended period of time, such as work groups, clubs, and congregations.

Social groups are larger and more formally organized than primary groups, and memberships tend to be shorter in duration and less emotionally involved. Their boundaries are also more permeable, so members can leave old groups behind and join new ones, for they do not demand the level of commitment that primary groups do.

3. Collective

A relatively large aggregation or group of individuals who display similarities in actions and outlook. A street crowd, a line of people (a queue), and a panicked group escaping a fire are examples of collectives, as are more widely dispersed groups (e.g., listeners who respond similarly to a public service announcement).

A list of examples of collectives would include crowds watching a building burn, audiences seated in a movie theater, lines (queues) of people waiting to purchase tickets, gatherings of college students protesting a government policy, and panicked mobs fleeing from danger.

But the list would also include social movements of individuals who, though dispersed over a wide area, display common shifts in opinion or actions. The members of collectives are joined by their common interest or shared actions, but they often owe little allegiance to the group.

4. Category

Social category A perceptual grouping of people who are assumed to be similar to one another in some ways but di"erent in one or more ways, such as all women, the elderly, college students, or all the citizens of a specific country.

Social identity An individual’s sense of self derived from relationships and memberships in groups; also, those aspects of the self that are assumed to be common to most or all of the members of the same group or social category.

Elements of Group

✦ Common purpose means that the members of the group are participating in the group activities to achieve similar goals. They are motivated to participate in the group process and dynamics by a shared set of desired outcomes.

✦ Shared values mean that the members of the group share certain core beliefs about what the structure and essence of the group is and strive to maintain the group’s integrity.

✦ Shared norms mean that the members of the group agree on certain overarching principles that direct or influence the manner in which the group members behave and interact with one another in the context of the group. In children’s groups these are referred to as rules.

Myths and Misconception of a group

Myth 1: "The e"ectiveness of groups depends on leadership."

While leadership is an important element in almost all groups, the e"ectiveness of a group is a combination of many factors. In summarizing the research, Capuzzi and Gross (1992) state that group members have an impact on each other regardless of the leader, and "the most e"ective group leaders are those who help the group develop so that members are primary sources of help for one another" (p. 18). While it is helpful and advantageous to have a caring, committed, and competent leader for a group, it is not essential.

Myth 2: "Groups are only e"ective when they focus on the present."

It is beneficial for many people to attend to their thoughts, behaviors, and feelings as they occur in a group setting. However, the e"ectiveness of the group and its members is also a product of the past. Therefore, e"ective groups deal with "there-and-then experiences as well as the here-and-now" (Capuzzi & Gross, 1992, p. 19). In this integrated way, members inform themselves and others about lessons learned from personal history as well as those gleaned from the present.

Myth 3: "Group members must be open and honest at all times."

This myth implies that people ingroups should "tell all" and confess all of their shameful acts to others (Yalom, 1985). It is a major reason many people resist joining groups of any type. Complete openness and honesty are not appropriate in every situation. For instance, if a group member has a history of failures or does not like someone else's speech, the communication of these facts will probably not be helpful to others.

Unfiltered self-disclosing or feedback per se may do more damage than good (Martin & Jacobs, 1980).

Unfiltered self-disclosing or feedback per se may do more damage than good (Martin & Jacobs, 1980).

However, a sense of trust within the group may be established or enhanced when group members are open and honest with each other on a selective and constructive basis. As a general principle, such behaviors are valued and appropriate.

Myth 4: "Groups force people to lose their identity."

The idea behind this myth is that a group is overwhelming and that within cais related to stories of poorly run or unregulated groups where people have been attacked, ridiculed, or humiliated when they did not agree with the group as a whole or with its leader. Stories of brainwashing experiences from prisoners of war have also fed the idea that groups are not helpful to individuals. A third factor that has led to this myth is the behavior of large and anonymous groups, such as mobs (Zimbardo, 1969). In reality, most individuals develop a stronger personal identity or interests as a result of their interactions with others.

Myth 5: "Groups are artificial."

This belief is precipitated by the fact that all group experiences are unique. As a result, many people doubt that what they learn in a group setting can be transferred to other life events. This belief may be less prevalent among task groups because key members of a work team may actually be present in the group. In therapeutic groups, however, members may question the validity of their group experience more because of their diverse backgrounds. In actuality, any experience in which one learns more about oneself and how to interrelate e"ectively with others has a lasting and realistically pervasive influence.

Overcoming Myths and Misconceptions

There are a number of strategies leaders can use to dispel and overcome myths and misconceptions about groups (Childers & Couch, 1989). Among these are the following:

Utilizing a pre-group interview to identify any fears related to the group and to correct them.

Providing factual information (psycho-didactic) to group members about the e"ects of groups (Selby & Calhoun, 1980).

Addressing group members' concerns early in the group process by giving the group as a whole low- intensity responses that address current thoughts and feelings (Cohen & Smith,1976).

Types of Group

There are many di"erent types of groups. For the purpose of discussion, groups have been classified into two broad categories:

1. Functional Groups are groups that are classified on the basis of what they are designed to do and accomplish. They are defined by their purpose.

a. T-Groups:

The “T” is for training. are sensitivity groups that are designed to increase participants’ self-awareness, promote self-growth, enhance sensitivity to the feelings of others and improve one’s e"ectiveness as a group participant.

The concepts of training and sensitivity are combined in the notion of “T” groups because the training centers on helping individuals increase their sensitivity to the emotional needs of others in their interpersonal interactions and to their own emotional needs.

One may say that these groups are designed to enhance intrapersonal intelligence (self-awareness and self- regulation) and interpersonal intelligence (awareness of and interactions with others).

A specific type of sensitivity group is the Encounter Group that uses verbal or physical confrontation or encounters to promote personal growth.

b. Counseling Groups:

These groups are designed to help members address specific physical, social, psychological, emotional or behavioral issues.

behavioral issues.

Through the group process, including active listening and feedback, group members are able to confront and address the issues of concern.

The desired outcome is usually to change the existing situation to one that is more adaptive and healthier for each member of the group.

Examples of counseling groups are an anger management group and a group for children of divorced parents. c. Therapy Groups:

These groups are similar to counseling groups except that the issues tend to be more serious and require a much more experienced and knowledgeable group facilitator.

Examples of therapy groups are a group for individuals with eating disorders and a group for individuals with anxiety disorders.

d. Work Groups:

These groups are designed to accomplish specific tasks on fixed timelines and deliver a clearly expected product at the end of the specified time frame.

The group is evaluated on the basis of the quality of the product. Most teams would be classified as work groups.

Specific examples of team that are work groups are: a grant writing team where the product would be a grant proposal, a planning and placement team (PPT) in a school where the product would be a an individual education plan (IEP) for a student, or a sports team where the product would be the record at the end of the season.

e. Focus Groups:

These groups are designed to generate data on the basis of which informed decisions are made.

Usually a small group of individuals is convened to discuss a particular topic and to address focused questions on that topic.

The responses to the questions, as well as the passion and emotional reactions to the questions and the interactions among group members, are all considered to be important data for decision makers.

Examples of focus groups are the group that is convened by a politician to gauge constituents’ reactions to a proposed piece of legislation and the group that is assembled by the marketing department of a company to assess consumers’ reactions to a product or advertising campaign.

f. Support Groups:

These are groups that are designed as opportunities for individuals facing similar physical, social, psychological or emotional issues to come together to o"er and receive support from one another.

Sharing experiences and o"ering support, serves to inspire hope as members realize that they are not alone and others have faced or are facing similar issues.

Members are able to learn from the experiences of one another.

These groups di"er from counseling and therapy groups in that there is no targeted physical, social, psychological or emotional change expected for any member of the group, although a by-product of the support one receives might be such a change.

Support groups tend to be more member-directed and led than counseling and therapy groups.

Examples of support groups related to alcohol addiction are: Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), Al-Anon and Al-A-

teen. Other support groups in school settings may include groups for children of divorced parents and groups

teen. Other support groups in school settings may include groups for children of divorced parents and groups

for students who have lost a close friend or family member.

g. Psycho-educational groups:

These are groups that are designed to address students’ school-related behaviors and their academic achievement.

These groups are focused specifically on identified issues that may be a"ecting students’ achievement motivation leading to underachievement and school failure.

A psycho-educational group process called the Interest, Achievement and Motivation, “I AM” group process is described in chapter ten and an overview of the evaluation of this psycho-educational group process is provided.

2. Identity Groups are groups that are classified by the nature of the a#liation that members of the groups share with one another.

a. Membership Groups:

These are groups that involve some form of o#cially recognized status as a member.

Usually these groups require that the participant be inducted or receive o#cial acknowledgement as a member and may, but not necessarily, require a membership fee or membership dues

Additionally, there is often an o#cial membership roster that is revised and updated after a specified period of time.

Renewal of membership after a specified period of time is usually also required. Examples of membership groups are: sororities, fraternities and athletic teams.

b. Reference Groups:

These are groups that do not require o#cial recognition or induction as a member, rather they are groups with whose values, purpose and goals individuals identify.

A reference group for some individuals may be a membership group for others.

A good example of this would be football or basketball fans, who are not o#cially members of sports teams but identify with the sports teams. Therefore, the sports teams may be considered reference groups. Other examples of reference groups include di"erent advocacy groups such as Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) and Green Peace with whose mission and goals many people who are not card-carrying members identify.

c. Open Groups:

These are groups whose memberships are fluid, and where people are free to join or leave as they choose. There are usually no specific attendance requirements. Support groups are usually open groups.

d. Closed Groups:

These are groups whose memberships are fixed, and where people are not free to join or leave as they choose. There are usually clear and strict attendance requirements. Counseling and therapy groups are usually closed groups.

e. In-Groups:

These are groups that are considered to include the most popular individuals. It is considered desirable to belong to these groups.

Among school-aged children, in-groups tend to wield a great deal of influence and power. They often exclude

Among school-aged children, in-groups tend to wield a great deal of influence and power. They often exclude individuals whom the members of the in-group consider to lack certain traits that they feel important for membership.

These groups are said to be the popular groups or the groups with the popular people.

f. Out-Groups:

These groups include individuals who are excluded or denied membership by members of the in-group.

Members of this group are considered to be less popular and are deemed to occupy a lower status in the social hierarchy.

Sometimes members of this group su"er ridicule, rejection, ostracism and even bullying by members of the in- group. This is a particularly challenging issue among school-age children.

g. Family Groups:

These are groups that include individuals who are related by blood, adoption or election. These groups are usually divided into nuclear, primary, and extended family groups.

Nuclear family groups usually include parents and children. Primary family groups typically include family members who share the same household or, if they do not share the same household, are deemed to play a significant role in the daily lives of family members.

Extended family groups usually include family members who are not nuclear or primary family members. h. Friendship Groups:

These are groups that include individuals who are friends and who may share time, activities, interests and actual or virtual space regularly or periodically.

Social networking websites such as MySpace, Facebook, Blogosphere and Twitter have considerably expanded the reach of friendship groups.

In fact, it may be that these internet connections may deserve a separate group classification, such as Internet Networking Groups, but for now they are being included as friendship groups.

VALUE OF GROUPS FOR INDIVIDUALS

Some of the positive experiences that individuals have through their participation in groups are that individuals:

Receive support, encouragement and validation during self-exploration and growth;

● Learn by observing the behaviors and consequences of the actions of others; ● Achieve a sense of belonging and connectedness;

● Share common problems; and

● Receive feedback that can help in personal growth and development.

The benefits that individuals receive from groups are supported through the following group factors or processes:

Support for Catharsis: Groups provide an opportunity for an individual to “emote” or express his or her deep and true feelings about issues, among group members who listen and empathize. As a result, the individual experiences release, relief and freedom from emotional and psychological pain, enabling the individual to experience personal growth.

Sharing of Information: Group members share information which expands the perspective, knowledge, awareness and interests of individuals in the group.

Providing Hope: As group members share their stories and provide feedback and support to one another, they

Providing Hope: As group members share their stories and provide feedback and support to one another, they come to demonstrate resilience, determination, strength and optimism. Individuals who may otherwise despair may become hopeful and more determined than ever to succeed.

Giving of Feedback: Feedback allows group members to become more aware of their interpersonal interactions, and to see themselves as others in the group may see them. This may lead to helpful changes in attitudes and behaviors.

Promoting Bonding: Group members may experience a feeling of connectedness, togetherness and cohesion. This allows individuals in the group to derive a sense of a#liation and identification with members of the group, perhaps filling a personal need by reducing feelings of isolation and loneliness.

Promoting Interpersonal Skills: Groups help individual members develop or refine their social interaction skills by learning how to read and respond appropriately to social cues.

Promoting Intrapersonal Skills: Groups help individuals develop or refine their self-awareness and self- regulation skills by identifying internal emotional cues and learning how to regulate, manage and express their emotions appropriately.

Allowing Re-enactment: Some groups provide the opportunity for group members to re-enact family dynamics, as well other relationships outside of the family. This enables individuals to achieve catharsis and therapeutic release.

Disclosing of Universality: Groups help members realize that they are not alone in experiencing certain issues and that others share these issues as well. Thus, members can learn coping strategies and problem solving approaches from others who are in the same or similar predicament.

mere aggregate of individuals into a bona fide group. Even the minimal number of members needed for a true group is debated, with some definitions requiring three members but others only two (Moreland, 2010; Williams, 2010).

✦ Categorization:

- “Two or more individuals ... [who] perceive themselves to be members of the same social category”

(Turner, 1982, p. 15) ✦ Communication:

- “Three or more people...who (a) think of themselves as a group, (b) are interdependent (e.g., with regard to shared goals or behaviors that a"ect one another), and (c) communicate (interact) with one another (via face-to-face or technological means)” (Frey & Konieczka, 2010, p. 317).

✦ Influence:

- “Two or more persons who are interacting with one another in such a manner that each person

influences and is influenced by each other person” (Shaw, 1981, p. 454). ✦ Interdependence:

- “A dynamic whole based on interdependence rather than similarity” (Lewin, 1948, p. 184). ✦ Interrelations:

- “An aggregation of two or more people who are to some degree in dynamic interrelation with one another” (McGrath, 1984, p. 8).

✦ Psychological significance:

- “A psychological group is any number of people who interact with each other, are psychologically

aware of each other, and perceive themselves to be in a group” (Pennington, 2002, p. 3). ✦ Relations:

-

“Individuals who stand in certain relations to each other, for example, as sharing a common purpose

- “Individuals who stand in certain relations to each other, for example, as sharing a common purpose

or having a common intentionality, or acting together, or at least having a common interest” (Gould, 2004, p. 119).

✦ Shared identity:

- “Two or more people possessing a common social identification and whose existence as a group is

recognized by a third party” (Brown, 2000, p. 19). ✦ Shared tasks and goals:

- “Three or more people who work together interdependently on an agreed-upon activity or goal” (Keyton, 2002, p. 5).

✦ Size:

- “Two or more people” (Williams, 2010, p. 269).

✦ Social unit:

- “Persons who recognize that they constitute a meaningful social unit, interact on that basis, and are

committed to that social unity” (Fine, 2012, p. 21; Kerr & Tindale, 2014). ✦ Structure:

- “A social unit which consists of a number of individuals who stand in (more or less) definite status and role relationships to one another and which possesses a set of values or norms of its own regulating the behavior of individual members, at least in matters of consequence to the group” (Sherif & Sherif, 1956, p. 144).

✦ Systems:

- “An intact social system, complete with boundaries, interdependence for some shared purpose, and

di"erentiated member roles” (Hackman & Katz, 2010, p. 1210). Varieties of Group

1. Primary Group

- A small, long-term group characterized by frequent interaction, solidarity, and high levels of interdependence among members that substantially influences the attitudes, values, and social outcomes of its members.

- These groups profoundly influence the behavior, feelings, and judgments of their members, for members spend much of their time interacting with one another, usually in face-to-face settings with many of the other members present. Even when the group is dispersed, members nonetheless feel they are still “in” the group, and they consider the group to be a very important part of their lives.

Myth 1: "The e"ectiveness of groups depends on leadership."

Myth 2: "Groups are only e"ective when they focus on the present."

2. Social Group

- A relatively small number of individuals who interact with one another over an extended period of time, such as work groups, clubs, and congregations.

- Social groups are larger and more formally organized than primary groups, and memberships tend to be shorter in duration and less emotionally involved. Their boundaries are also more permeable, so members can leave old groups behind and join new ones, for they do not demand the level of commitment that primary groups do.

3. Collective

- A relatively large aggregation or group of individuals who display similarities in actions and outlook. A street crowd, a line of people (a queue), and a panicked group escaping a fire are examples of collectives, as are more widely dispersed groups (e.g., listeners who respond similarly to a public service announcement).

- A list of examples of collectives would include crowds watching a building burn, audiences seated in a movie theater, lines (queues) of people waiting to purchase tickets, gatherings of college students protesting a government policy, and panicked mobs fleeing from danger.

- But the list would also include social movements of individuals who, though dispersed over a wide area, display common shifts in opinion or actions. The members of collectives are joined by their common interest or shared actions, but they often owe little allegiance to the group.

4. Category

- Social category A perceptual grouping of people who are assumed to be similar to one another in some ways but di"erent in one or more ways, such as all women, the elderly, college students, or all the citizens of a specific country.

- Social identity An individual’s sense of self derived from relationships and memberships in groups; also, those aspects of the self that are assumed to be common to most or all of the members of the same group or social category.

Elements of Group

✦ Common purpose means that the members of the group are participating in the group activities to achieve similar goals. They are motivated to participate in the group process and dynamics by a shared set of desired outcomes.

✦ Shared values mean that the members of the group share certain core beliefs about what the structure and essence of the group is and strive to maintain the group’s integrity.

✦ Shared norms mean that the members of the group agree on certain overarching principles that direct or influence the manner in which the group members behave and interact with one another in the context of the group. In children’s groups these are referred to as rules.

Myths and Misconception of a group

- While leadership is an important element in almost all groups, the e"ectiveness of a group is a combination of many factors. In summarizing the research, Capuzzi and Gross (1992) state that group members have an impact on each other regardless of the leader, and "the most e"ective group leaders are those who help the group develop so that members are primary sources of help for one another" (p. 18). While it is helpful and advantageous to have a caring, committed, and competent leader for a group, it is not essential.

Myth 3: "Group members must be open and honest at all times."

Myth 4: "Groups force people to lose their identity."

Myth 5: "Groups are artificial."

- It is beneficial for many people to attend to their thoughts, behaviors, and feelings as they occur in a group setting. However, the e"ectiveness of the group and its members is also a product of the past. Therefore, e"ective groups deal with "there-and-then experiences as well as the here-and-now" (Capuzzi & Gross, 1992, p. 19). In this integrated way, members inform themselves and others about lessons learned from personal history as well as those gleaned from the present.

- This myth implies that people ingroups should "tell all" and confess all of their shameful acts to others (Yalom, 1985). It is a major reason many people resist joining groups of any type. Complete openness and honesty are not appropriate in every situation. For instance, if a group member has a history of failures or does not like someone else's speech, the communication of these facts will probably not be helpful to others. Unfiltered self-disclosing or feedback per se may do more damage than good (Martin & Jacobs, 1980). However, a sense of trust within the group may be established or enhanced when group members are open and honest with each other on a selective and constructive basis. As a general principle, such behaviors are valued and appropriate.

- The idea behind this myth is that a group is overwhelming and that within cais related to stories of poorly run or unregulated groups where people have been attacked, ridiculed, or humiliated when they did not agree with the group as a whole or with its leader. Stories of brainwashing experiences from prisoners of war have also fed the idea that groups are not helpful to individuals. A third factor that has led to this myth is the behavior of large and anonymous groups, such as mobs (Zimbardo, 1969). In reality, most individuals develop a stronger personal identity or interests as a result of their interactions with others.

- This belief is precipitated by the fact that all group experiences are unique. As a result, many people doubt that what they learn in a group setting can be transferred to other life events. This belief may be less prevalent among task groups because key members of a work team may actually be present in the group. In therapeutic groups, however, members may question the validity of their group experience more because of their diverse backgrounds. In actuality, any experience in which one learns more about oneself and how to interrelate e"ectively with others has a lasting and realistically pervasive influence.

Overcoming Myths and Misconceptions

There are a number of strategies leaders can use to dispel and overcome myths and misconceptions about groups (Childers & Couch, 1989). Among these are the following:

✦ Utilizing a pre-group interview to identify any fears related to the group and to correct them.

✦ Providing factual information (psycho-didactic) to group members about the e"ects of groups

(Selby & Calhoun, 1980).

✦ Addressing group members' concerns early in the group process by giving the group as a whole low-intensity responses that address current thoughts and feelings (Cohen & Smith,1976).

Types of Group

There are many di"erent types of groups. For the purpose of discussion, groups have been classified into two broad categories:

1. Functional Groups are groups that are classified on the basis of what they are designed to do and accomplish. They are defined by their purpose.

a. T-Groups:

- The “T” is for training.

- The “T” is for training.

- are sensitivity groups that are designed to increase participants’ self-awareness, promote self- growth, enhance sensitivity to the feelings of others and improve one’s e"ectiveness as a group participant.

- The concepts of training and sensitivity are combined in the notion of “T” groups because the training centers on helping individuals increase their sensitivity to the emotional needs of others in their interpersonal interactions and to their own emotional needs.

- One may say that these groups are designed to enhance intrapersonal intelligence (self-awareness and self-regulation) and interpersonal intelligence (awareness of and interactions with others).

- A specific type of sensitivity group is the Encounter Group that uses verbal or physical confrontation or encounters to promote personal growth.

b. Counseling Groups:

- These groups are designed to help members address specific physical, social, psychological, emotional or behavioral issues.

- Through the group process, including active listening and feedback, group members are able to confront and address the issues of concern.

- The desired outcome is usually to change the existing situation to one that is more adaptive and healthier for each member of the group.

- Examples of counseling groups are an anger management group and a group for children of divorced parents.

c. Therapy Groups:

- These groups are similar to counseling groups except that the issues tend to be more serious and require a much more experienced and knowledgeable group facilitator.

- Examples of therapy groups are a group for individuals with eating disorders and a group for individuals with anxiety disorders.

d. Work Groups:

- These groups are designed to accomplish specific tasks on fixed timelines and deliver a clearly expected product at the end of the specified time frame.

- The group is evaluated on the basis of the quality of the product. Most teams would be classified as work groups.

- Specific examples of team that are work groups are: a grant writing team where the product would be a grant proposal, a planning and placement team (PPT) in a school where the product would be a an individual education plan (IEP) for a student, or a sports team where the product would be the record at the end of the season.

e. Focus Groups:

- These groups are designed to generate data on the basis of which informed decisions are made.

- Usually a small group of individuals is convened to discuss a particular topic and to address focused questions on that topic.

- The responses to the questions, as well as the passion and emotional reactions to the questions and the interactions among group members, are all considered to be important data for decision makers.

the interactions among group members, are all considered to be important data for decision makers.

- Examples of focus groups are the group that is convened by a politician to gauge constituents’ reactions to a proposed piece of legislation and the group that is assembled by the marketing department of a company to assess consumers’ reactions to a product or advertising campaign.

f. Support Groups:

- These are groups that are designed as opportunities for individuals facing similar physical, social, psychological or emotional issues to come together to o"er and receive support from one another.

- Sharing experiences and o"ering support, serves to inspire hope as members realize that they are not alone and others have faced or are facing similar issues.

- Members are able to learn from the experiences of one another.

- These groups di"er from counseling and therapy groups in that there is no targeted physical, social, psychological or emotional change expected for any member of the group, although a by-product of the support one receives might be such a change.

- Support groups tend to be more member-directed and led than counseling and therapy groups.

- Examples of support groups related to alcohol addiction are: Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), Al-Anon and Al-A-teen. Other support groups in school settings may include groups for children of divorced parents and groups for students who have lost a close friend or family member.

g. Psycho-educational groups:

- These are groups that are designed to address students’ school-related behaviors and their academic achievement.

- These groups are focused specifically on identified issues that may be a"ecting students’ achievement motivation leading to underachievement and school failure.

- A psycho-educational group process called the Interest, Achievement and Motivation, “I AM” group process is described in chapter ten and an overview of the evaluation of this psycho-educational group process is provided.

2. Identity Groups are groups that are classified by the nature of the a#liation that members of the groups share with one another.

a. Membership Groups:

- These are groups that involve some form of o#cially recognized status as a member.

- Usually these groups require that the participant be inducted or receive o#cial acknowledgement as a member and may, but not necessarily, require a membership fee or membership dues

- Additionally, there is often an o#cial membership roster that is revised and updated after a specified period of time.

- Renewal of membership after a specified period of time is usually also required. Examples of membership groups are: sororities, fraternities and athletic teams.

b. Reference Groups:

- These are groups that do not require o#cial recognition or induction as a member, rather they are groups with whose values, purpose and goals individuals identify.

- A reference group for some individuals may be a membership group for others.

- A good example of this would be football or basketball fans, who are not o#cially members of sports teams but identify with the sports teams. Therefore, the sports teams may be considered reference

teams but identify with the sports teams. Therefore, the sports teams may be considered reference

groups. Other examples of reference groups include di"erent advocacy groups such as Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) and Green Peace with whose mission and goals many people who are not card-carrying members identify.

c. Open Groups:

- These are groups whose memberships are fluid, and where people are free to join or leave as they choose. There are usually no specific attendance requirements. Support groups are usually open groups.

d. Closed Groups:

- These are groups whose memberships are fixed, and where people are not free to join or leave as they choose. There are usually clear and strict attendance requirements. Counseling and therapy groups are usually closed groups.

e. In-Groups:

- These are groups that are considered to include the most popular individuals. It is considered desirable to belong to these groups.

- Among school-aged children, in-groups tend to wield a great deal of influence and power. They often exclude individuals whom the members of the in-group consider to lack certain traits that they feel important for membership.

- These groups are said to be the popular groups or the groups with the popular people. f. Out-Groups:

- These groups include individuals who are excluded or denied membership by members of the in- group.

- Members of this group are considered to be less popular and are deemed to occupy a lower status in the social hierarchy.

- Sometimes members of this group su"er ridicule, rejection, ostracism and even bullying by members of the in-group. This is a particularly challenging issue among school-age children.

g. Family Groups:

- These are groups that include individuals who are related by blood, adoption or election. These groups are usually divided into nuclear, primary, and extended family groups.

- Nuclear family groups usually include parents and children. Primary family groups typically include family members who share the same household or, if they do not share the same household, are deemed to play a significant role in the daily lives of family members.

- Extended family groups usually include family members who are not nuclear or primary family members.

h. Friendship Groups:

- These are groups that include individuals who are friends and who may share time, activities, interests and actual or virtual space regularly or periodically.

- Social networking websites such as MySpace, Facebook, Blogosphere and Twitter have considerably expanded the reach of friendship groups.

Support for Catharsis:

Sharing of Information: Providing Hope:

Giving of Feedback: Promoting Bonding:

Promoting Interpersonal Skills: Promoting Intrapersonal Skills:

Allowing Re-enactment: Disclosing of Universality:

UNIT 2. STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT

- In fact, it may be that these internet connections may deserve a separate group classification, such as Internet Networking Groups, but for now they are being included as friendship groups.

VALUE OF GROUPS FOR INDIVIDUALS

Some of the positive experiences that individuals have through their participation in groups are that individuals:

✓ Receive support, encouragement and validation during self-exploration and growth; ✓ Learn by observing the behaviors and consequences of the actions of others;

✓ Achieve a sense of belonging and connectedness;

✓ Share common problems; and

✓ Receive feedback that can help in personal growth and development.

The benefits that individuals receive from groups are supported through the following group factors or

processes:

✱ Groups provide an opportunity for an individual to “emote” or express his or her deep and true feelings about issues, among group members who listen and empathize. As a result, the individual experiences release, relief and freedom from emotional and psychological pain, enabling the individual to experience personal growth.

✱ Group members share information which expands the perspective, knowledge, awareness and interests of individuals in the group.

✱ As group members share their stories and provide feedback and support to one another, they come to demonstrate resilience, determination, strength and optimism. Individuals who may otherwise despair may become hopeful and more determined than ever to succeed.

✱ Feedback allows group members to become more aware of their interpersonal interactions, and to see themselves as others in the group may see them. This may lead to helpful changes in attitudes and behaviors.

✱ Group members may experience a feeling of connectedness, togetherness and cohesion. This allows individuals in the group to derive a sense of a#liation and identification with members of the group, perhaps filling a personal need by reducing feelings of isolation and loneliness.

✱ Groups help individual members develop or refine their social interaction skills by learning how to read and respond appropriately to social cues.

✱ Groups help individuals develop or refine their self-awareness and self-regulation skills by identifying internal emotional cues and learning how to regulate, manage and express their emotions appropriately.

✱ Some groups provide the opportunity for group members to re-enact family dynamics, as well other relationships outside of the family. This enables individuals to achieve catharsis and therapeutic release.

✱ Groups help members realize that they are not alone in experiencing certain issues and that others share these issues as well. Thus, members can learn coping strategies and problem solving approaches from others who are in the same or similar predicament.

- Groups, like individuals, go through stages of development experiencing changes in leadership, interpersonal interactions, roles, communication structures, and power structures.

- Groups, like individuals, go through stages of development experiencing changes in leadership, interpersonal interactions, roles, communication structures, and power structures.

- As groups progress through their stages, group members undergo commensurate social, psychological, emotional and cognitive changes. The values of groups become more salient to the individual and the factors of groups that promote change begin to make a di"erence.

-

1. Initial, Forming, Dependency and Inclusion, Induction, Orientation and Search for Meaning

✦ During stage one interpersonal interactions are tentative, superficial, lacking confidence and uncertain. There is an absence of trust among members.

✦ Consequently, they look to the assigned leader for direction and guidance.

✦ Members are compliant and participation tends to be limited to a few members who are more vocal

than others.

✦ Leadership is centered on the assigned leader.

✦ Group members are concerned with being included in the group and not saying or doing anything that may “rock the boat” and result in rejection.

✦ Conformity tends to be high and conflict low or non-existent. Member roles are unclear and undefined.

✦ Communication structure tends to be centralized with information among members being filtered through the assigned leader.

✦ Members typically communicate in a tentative and relatively polite manner.

✦ Power (defined as the ability to influence the behavior of others) tends to be concentrated in the assigned leader.

✦ As the team leader, you should:

✧ Play a dominant role at this stage to help your employees recognize who’s the leader ✧ Establish clear goals and objective for the whole team, and each individual

✧ Allow for open communication so that your team members can get to know each other

2. Transition, Storming, Counter Dependency and Fight, Experimental Engagement, Conflict, Dominance and

Rebellion

✦ During stage two, interpersonal interactions are more substantive, confident and assertive.

✦ During stage two, interactions with other people are deeper, more confident, and more direct.

✦ As conformity declines, conflicts arise due to disagreements and di"erent points of view.

✦ Conflict takes di"erent forms and does not necessarily find expression in stridency, name calling and vociferous debate. It may take the form of mild confrontation and disagreements.

✦ There is wider participation in the group process.

✦ The assigned leader is challenged and new leadership begins to emerge. Subgroups and cliques

begin to form.

✦ Member roles begin to emerge and become clear.

✦ The communication structure begins to become less centralized and more distributed as does the power within the group.

✦ Through the conflicts and the e"orts to resolve these conflicts the group moves to a new level of engagement that advances the group process to stage three.

✦ As the team leader, you should:

✧ Be specific and clarify goals

✧ Remain positive

✧ Ensure that you don’t overload the members with work

✧ Ensure that you support your team members, and ensure that they support each other; building trust is crucial at this stage.

✧ Explain the forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning model to your team so they know what to expect.

✧ Use personality tests, such as the ones outlined in the article, to aid the understanding of each other’s personality and work styles

3. Norming, Trust, Cohesive Engagement, Cohesiveness

4. Performing, Working

✦ During stage three, interpersonal interactions are based on trust and openness.

✦ Members feel that they can be open, free and confident in expressing their thoughts, ideas and feelings. The formation of subgroups may continue or become more solidified as the group becomes more tolerant and accepting of di"erences and coalitions within the larger group.

✦ There is more focused awareness of and attention to others, not just on verbal expressions but also on non-verbal behaviors.

✦ Group confidence increases as members begin to trust that members are being candid about what they feel and believe.

✦ There is a sense that group members are more genuine and believable.

✦ Group cohesion increases, meaning that group members feel more connected, they bond more and there is more buy-in to the purpose and goals of the group. It does not mean that no more disagreements or conflicts arise. However, when conflicts and disagreements arise at this stage, there are more constructive and helpful approaches to addressing them recognizing that “we are in this together.”

✦ The assigned leader’s role continues to become less directive and less prominent and new leadership continues to emerge among group members.

✦ The communication structure continues to become even more decentralized with members communicating directly with one another, making more eye contact and addressing one another more in the second person “you” as opposed to in the third person “he” or “she.”

✦ As the team leader, you should:

✧ Provide feedback, both positive and negative.

✧ Step back and allow your team to take responsibility towards the goal; you could even begin to work on other tasks - perhaps even forming new teams!

✧ Incorporate team building exercises to strengthen the unity and trust within the team.

✦ During stage four, the work of the group gets done. A group’s work depends on the type of group it is and the purpose and goals of the group.

✦ It is in stage four that the group focuses more intently on accomplishing its goals.

✦ Interpersonal interactions are deep, open, and very substantive. Members no longer hold back in

sharing their thoughts and feelings.

✦ Feedback is characterized by genuine caring and concern for each member’s well-being and members receive feedback without defensiveness and resentment.

✦ In sensitivity groups, counseling groups and therapy groups, intrapersonal focus is also heightened. Members deepen their self-reflections, consider the feedback they receive and incorporate feedback elements they deem to be most helpful.

elements they deem to be most helpful.

5. Ending, Disengagement, Adjourning, Termination

✦ It is in this stage that each member’s JOHARI window changes significantly. It is a representation of the intersection between what we know about and see in ourselves and what others know about and see in us. As we share information and participate in the group process, group members learn things about us that they may not have known before. As others share their perceptions of us we learn things about ourselves that we did not know before and are able to adjust in our attitudes and actions that we deem necessary and helpful to us. Group members invite the least involved members to participate more.

✦ The assigned leader’s control fades.

✦ Leadership is shared by more group members although one or several members emerge as clear

leaders of the group.

✦ The communication structure is completely decentralized. Members speak directly to one another in the second person “you,” making eye contact and paying close attention to verbal and non-verbal cues.

✦ Roles become more diverse, as there is fuller participation by all group members.

✦ Power becomes even more distributed among all group members and more power bases are used.

A power base is the source of one’s ability to influence others in the group. ✦ As the team leader, you should:

✧ Delegate work evenly and fairly

✧ Focus on the development of individual team members

✧ Allow people to join, or leave, as it won’t a"ect group performance.

✦ During stage five, in sensitivity, counseling and therapy groups, interpersonal interactions become more complex as members have bonded and feel very connected to one another yet begin to realize that the group experience is ending.

✦ The connections deepen on the one hand, but there is also a tendency to withhold additional deep sharing. Some members may begin to withdraw and the level and quality of group participation may decline.

✦ Members may begin to feel a sense of impending loss and may bring up past experiences of separation and loss, sharing how those experiences a"ected them and drawing parallels with the impending separation from the group.

✦ Members often begin to discuss ways that they may remain connected after the group terminates, thus forming friendship groups as spin-o"s from the present group. In groups such as work groups or on teams, stage five may see an increase in activity and a redoubling of individual and team e"orts to meet deadlines and complete the product or deliverable that is expected.

Shifts in Sharing and Engagement

As the group evolves through the stages, the amount and quality of sharing and the depth of engagement

As the group evolves through the stages, the amount and quality of sharing and the depth of engagement among group members also change.

These shifts in sharing and engagement take the form of a bell curve. Given the changes that occur in the group’s dynamics as the group moves from one stage to the other, it is possible to observe any group and use a checklist to determine the stage that the group may be functioning in at any point in time. Based on the Integrative Model of group development (Wheelan, 1994), a checklist has been developed specifically for this purpose.

✦ As simple and as obvious as it may seem, the first step in forming a group, that is, identifying and stating the group’s purpose and goals, is far too often overlooked or not given adequate attention.

✦ The purpose is a general statement about what the group is being formed to accomplish. The goals emanate from the purpose and are more specific statements about what the group is designed to achieve or what the indicators of group success would look like.

✧ Goals break down the purpose into more assessable units or outcomes. It is important to very clearly state the purpose of the group so that the goals can be clearly aligned with the purpose and the activities of the group can be aligned with the goals.

✧ The goals should be stated in measurable terms so that the progress of the group can be measured and monitored.

✧ Having goals allows the group designer and/or leader to assess the e"ectiveness of the group during and after the group process.

★ For example, assume that you are interested in forming a group to address a problem of overeating and under-activity among a group of overweight teenagers. The purpose of the group may be stated as: to help the group of overweight teenagers consume fewer calories and become more active. The goals may be stated as: to help the group of overweight teenagers:

UNIT. 3 STEPS IN FORMING A GROUP

Step 1: Determine and clearly articulate the purpose and goals of the group you are planning to form

✩ eat fewer sweets, ✩ ✩ drink fewer high calorie drinks,

✩ snack less during the course of the day,

exercise for at least half an hour each day, and

✩ reduce the amount of time sitting in front of a

television or computer.

★ In this example, the purpose is a general statement about fewer caloric consumption and higher levels of activity. The goals more specifically indicate measurable ways to achieve the group’s purpose. Notice that the goals did not

include any mention of weight loss because the purpose did not mention weight loss, although the ultimate aim is obviously weight loss. So, for example, if the purpose is stated as: to help overweight teenagers lose weight, then the goals would be stated di"erently such as: to help overweight teenagers

✩ monitor and manage their weight, ✩ lose at least one pound each week, and ✩ control their eating of foods that lose at least 10 pounds by the end of the group.

✩ contribute to weight gain

✩ contribute to weight gain

Step 2: Determine the kind of group that would best address the purpose and goals (counseling group,

therapy group, support group, work group, focus group, psycho-educational or sensitivity group).

Step 3: Decide if you would like to have a closed or an open group.

Step 4: Decide on the size for the group.

✦ The kind of group that is planned, designed and formed is determined by the purpose and the goals identified in step one. A counseling or therapy group, for example, would be appropriate to address goals that involve attitude and behavior change, life skills development and adjustment and adaptation to a changing situation. A support group would be appropriate to address goals that involve coping and acceptance. A work group would address goals that involve task completion. A focus group would address goals that involve data and information gathering on attitudes, preferences, perceptions and behavior. A sensitivity group would address goals that involve self- awareness, personal growth and interactions with others.

✦ The decision to form a closed or an open group would depend on the purpose, goals and kind of group. For example, most counseling groups are closed, that is, once the group begins no other individuals are allowed to join and those who have joined are expected to attend consistently. Most support groups are open. That is, there is no formal membership and individuals are allowed to attend as they wish. A good example is Alcoholics Anonymous.

✦ Whether a group is open or closed is contingent on its mission and the needs of its members.

✧ An open group is one that continues without a set number of members or even without the same members being present each time. Some support and therapeutic groups, such as Alcoholics Anonymous, are run on an open group format. "As group members move from being novices to veterans, their role in the group changes gradually to becoming an informed role model. Newer members provide the veterans with a downward social comparison" (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1993, p. 49).

✧ Closed groups are set up to run for a specific length of time with a designated number of individuals. If a member discontinues for any reason, he or she is not replaced; instead, the group proceeds as before with tips, remaining members in attendance. The advantage of this arrangement is that members become more trusting of and comfortable with each other and with the group process over time. As a result, they may work harder on certain issues than they would within a group that is always in flux, and in a less confrontational manner (Gruner, 1984). The disadvantage of this type of group is that some members may drop out or the group may become stale or toxic because of a lack of fresh ideas and people.

✦ The size of the group makes a di"erence in how it functions, and leaders must take this information into account as they plan. On the other hand; An ideal number in most groups for adults is between 10 and 14 persons (Gazda, 1989). If the group grows above 14, then members tend to form subgroups. If a group has been set up for therapeutic purposes, the number of group members should be limited to 7 or 8 persons (Carroll & Wiggins, 1990). Groups for children usually contain fewer members, generally 5 to 7 (Gazda, 1989).

✦ Likewise, groups that are established to educate or to disseminate information will be bigger than counseling or therapy groups. For instance, a classroom guidance group or a childbirth education group might have 20 to 40 people. Groups that are designed to run for an indefinite or extended length of time will generally be larger than short-term groups (12 sessions or less). Open-ended groups (those that allow members in at any time) contain more members than closed groups (those that start and end with the same members).

and end with the same members).

Step 5: Decide how many group members would be recruited.

✧ The smaller sized group has the advantage of greater involvement and participation by each member of the group. However, it o"ers less diversity of the membership attributes including ideas and feedback. , if the group is too small, leaders may have to work harder than they might otherwise have to to elicit group interaction.

✧ The larger sized group has the opposite advantage and disadvantage. With a larger membership, the advantage is that there is more likely to be more diversity among members.

✧ The disadvantage is that each member may participate less. Having too large a group hinders interaction and makes personalizing information more di#cult

✧ The decision about size should be determined again by the purpose and goals of the group and is influenced by the kind of group that is being formed.

★ For example, a counseling or therapy group may be usually smaller in size than a focus group or a support group. This is so because a counseling or therapy group is designed to produce change in members’ attitudes or behaviors and requires a depth of personal commitment, involvement, sharing and feedback among group members that a focus group or support group may not require.

✦ The methods used to recruit group members are important because how members are recruited determines who the members are and to a large extent the health and e"ectiveness of the group. The best way to recruit members is through personal contact, which has two advantages.

✧ First, it allows potential group members to commit them-selves to working with a specific person as a leader.

✧ Second, "through personal contact the leader can enthusiastically demonstrate that the group has potential value for a person" (Corey, Corey, Callanan,& Russell, 1992, p. 37).

✦ For instance, the leader might say to a prospective member: "You have told me that you are interested in improving your personal skills in dealing with anger. In this counseling group, anger is one of the issues we will consider. We will examine how we deal with other di#cult feelings, too, such as fear and pride." Far too often the recruitment of group members is done haphazardly with insu#cient attention paid to the goodness of fit between recruited members and the purpose and goals of the group. Not everyone who wants to participate in a group or is referred to a group is a good fit for that group. In fact, the inclusion of some individuals in a group may endanger the group’s viability, e"ectiveness and success.

✦ When personal contact is not possible, leaders can announce the formation of a group through the use of colleagues in the community or through agencies, schools, clinics, industries, or churches. Leaders can also print flyers or advertise in local or trade publications when such action is appropriate and within ethical guidelines. An example of this latter practice might be the formation of a grief- support group in a setting where the leaders do not personally know everyone who might potentially benefit from such a service. Regardless of the strategies employed in recruitment, leaders should inform potential members of the specifics of the group, such as goals, methods to be used, and risks.

✦ For example, in some instances, individuals with personality disorders or social and emotional problems should be excluded from participating in groups and may be better served in individual counseling or therapy sessions. In other instances, however, recruiting such individuals may be

counseling or therapy sessions. In other instances, however, recruiting such individuals may be appropriate for therapy groups whose purpose is to address those personality disorders or social and emotional problems, with very experienced and skilled clinicians. Groups are not to be used as places where children with discipline problems are sent to free a classroom of disruptive children if the group is not designed for that purpose. Misuse of groups is a far too common problem that needs to be prevented, addressed and discontinued when identified. A screening interview and a screening checklist or questionnaire can be helpful in determining whether or not an individual is a good fit for a group. Below is an example of a screening checklist that may be used.

✦ Using the checklist in table 3.1, an individual will be ruled out for group participation if that individual does not receive a check for each criterion or a score of 10 out of 10

Step 6: Get written consent from participants or from parents or guardians of participants who are below the

age of consent (18 years old).

✦ A group facilitator should clearly explain the purpose and goals of the group and receive written consent from each group member before the group begins. This helps to ensure that each group member understands the group’s purpose and goals and the responsibilities and expectations for group members. Below are examples of group participation consent and assent forms that can be used to document that group participation is done willingly.

✦ The location that is selected for hosting group sessions is just as important as the other steps discussed above. Location can impact group members’ comfort level, feelings of safety and security, sense of confidentiality and privacy, and their willingness and motivation to fully engage in the group process. In some cases, such as in some schools, space limitations impose a challenging situation in finding an appropriate space to host groups. Careful negotiations to identify a space that meets the following criteria should be conducted with the school principal or person in charge of assigning space for such activities. An appropriate space for groups should be:

✧ private,

✧ protective of confidentiality,

✧ comfortable in terms of temperature, furniture, and lighting,

✧ arranged in a manner that facilitates eye contact among all group

✧ participants and free flowing communication and interaction,

✧ available on a regularly scheduled basis at a specified time,

✧ free from interruptions or disruptions by human tra#c or noise from various sources, ✧ accessible to all group members.

Step 7: Host the group in a private, comfortable and safe place

✦ Meeting places that work best are quiet, comfortable, easily accessible, and private. Rooms should

✦ Meeting places that work best are quiet, comfortable, easily accessible, and private. Rooms should be comfortable in regard to lighting, decor, and seating arrangements. "The relative size of the chairs (Jacobs,Harvill,&Masson,1988, p. 26). Educational groups may also need tables to use as writing desks, but in some other types of groups especially therapeutic group stables create barriers and should be removed or arranged in such a way so as to not distract from the group's proper work. In order to create the most direct and interactive communication pattern possible, group members should arrange to sit in a circle. The circle format connotes equality and encourages members to talk directly to others, and fosters group cohesion (Gladding, 1991). Leaders need to plan to secure and arrange the setting before group members arrive, or they must deal with an initial disruption of the way people have arranged themselves and with potential resistance and rebellion.

Step 8: Establish a sense of safety and trust during the first session by creating a welcoming climate, and reinforce this climate during subsequent sessions.

✦ When a group is formed, a new experience begins for all members of the group. During the first session members tend to be uncertain, anxious, lacking confidence that they may do or say the right things and depend on the assigned leader for direction and guidance and to derive a sense of inclusion. Using an ice breaking activity to relax and introduce/reintroduce participants and discuss and assure confidentiality, can be extremely helpful and is highly recommended. As the name suggests, ice breaking activities break the ice, reduce the feeling of coldness or coolness that group members may be experiencing, and create warmth and establish comfort. Ice breaking activities with specific examples are further discussed in chapter five.

NORMS

➢ Generally accepted standard of behavior.

➢ Standard behavior (must be followed)

➢ It is important because they help to create order and

stability in society.

Explicit Norms – written down, such as laws and rules. They are formal expectations for behavior.

Examples:

➢ Laws (Traffic Laws, Criminal Codes) ➢ Rules of a game

➢ Company Policies

➢ Classroom Rules

Implicit Norms – not written down, but they are still generally understood and followed.

Examples:

➢ Standing in line (Grocery) ➢ Greetings

➢ Table Manners

Group Roles - Group roles are the specific positions or functions that individuals take on within a group. These roles can be formally assigned or they can emerge organically as the group interacts.

➢ Task Roles - focused or contributes to the advancement of the work group and help the group accomplish its task.

➢ Maintenance Roles - maintaining positive relationships and contribute to the cohesion and bonding that occur within the group.

➢ Individual Roles - focused on individual needs rather than group goals.

TASK ROLES

➢ Coordinator: The coordinator organizes the group’s ideas

and suggestions and orchestrates the group’s work.

➢ Elaborator: The elaborator expands on and explains ideas

and suggestions offered by members of the group.

➢ Energizer: The energizer motivates the group to keep

working and to get things done.

➢ Evaluator/Critic: The evaluator/critic considers and refers

the group members to the purpose, goals and norms in critiquing and assessing the group’s progress and accomplishments.

➢ Information Giver: The information giver offers factual information based on knowledge and experience.

➢ Information Seeker: The information seeker requests information to clarify ideas or suggestions and to check on factual accuracy.

➢ Initiator/Contributor: The initiator/contributor suggests or proposes new ideas to the group.

➢ Opinion Giver: The opinion giver offers thoughts and beliefs about suggestions and ideas shared within the group.

➢ Opinion Seeker: The opinion seeker tries to get opinions from other group members on topics, ideas and suggestions in order to clarify group members’ positions and values.

➢ Orienter: The orienter summarizes the group’s process and monitors, calibrates and defines the progress of the group.

➢ Procedural Technician: The procedural technician performs logistical and routine tasks to support and expedite the group’s work.

➢ Recorder: The recorder keeps track of decisions and suggestions by writing or typing notes and by keeping a running record of the group’s work

MAINTENANCE ROLES

➢

➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢

Compromiser: The compromiser gives up some of his or her held views and ideas in a compromising way in order to arrive at a mutually agreeable position or agreement on issues.

Encourager: The encourager validates, reinforces, supports, commends, recognizes and values contributions from group members.

Follower: The follower goes along in a passive and uncritical way with any suggestions, ideas, decisions or activities proposed or advanced by other group members.

Gatekeeper/Expediter: The gatekeeper/expediter monitors, solicits and supports input by group members and encourages group discussion and communication.

Harmonizer: The harmonizer mediates and reconciles disagreements, disputes and conflict among group members.

Observer/Commentator: The observer/ commentator conducts critical observations of the group’s work and comments on the group’s process.

Standard Setter: The standard setter establishes and

applies criteria for evaluating the group’s process and

progress.

INDIVIDUAL ROLES

➢ Aggressor: The aggressor tends to attack members of the

group and the group as a whole and takes credit for the

ideas and suggestions of others.

➢ Arguer: The arguer persistently disagrees with the

opinions and ideas of others in the group and the views of the group as a whole. In doing so the arguer seeks to satisfy a personal need to assert him or herself and to be contrary to the group’s consensus positions.

➢ Blocker: The blocker seeks to impede the work and progress of the group or stop certain activities or processes in the group by being negative, disagreeable and resistant.

➢ Dominator: The dominator imposes authority and control and asserts superiority over other members of the group through manipulation.

➢ Player: The player ostensibly displays a lack of interest and involvement in the group to draw attention.

➢ Recognition Seeker: The recognition seeker attempts to draw attention to him or herself by using various means and methods.

➢ Self-Confessor: The self-confessor cathartically shares and expresses personal problems and feelings to such an extent that limits the input of other group members. This role may include elements of the other individual roles and may serve similar functions

Group Climate - Group climate is like the overall emotional atmosphere within a group. It's the shared feeling or attitude that members have about the group and their interactions with each other. Think of it as the "vibe" of the group.

A positive group climate is characterized by things like:

➢ Open communication: Members feel comfortable sharing

their ideas and opinions.

➢ Trust and respect: Members trust and respect each other's

contributions.

➢ Supportiveness: Members support and encourage each

other.

➢ Cooperation: Members work together effectively towards

common goals.

➢ Shared sense of purpose: Members are all committed to

the group's goals.

A negative group climate, on the other hand, might involve:

➢ Closed communication: Members are hesitant to share their ideas.

➢ Mistrust and disrespect: Members don't trust or respect each other.

➢ Lack of support: Members are not supportive of each other. ➢ Conflict and competition: Members are in conflict or

competing with each other.

➢ Lack of commitment: Members are not committed to the

group's goals.

Group-Centered or Leader-Centered groups

Group-Centered:

➢ Emphasis: The group as a whole.

➢ Power: Distributed among members.

➢ Decision-making: Collaborative, with input from

everyone.

➢ Leadership: Shared or emergent, with different members

taking on leadership roles at different times.

➢ Communication: Open and two-way, with everyone

feeling comfortable sharing ideas.

➢ Focus: Process and relationships, as well as task

completion. Leader-Centered:

➢ Emphasis: The leader.

➢ Power: Concentrated in the leader.

➢ Decision-making: Primarily by the leader, with less input

from others.

➢ Leadership: Centralized, with the leader directing the

group.

➢ Communication: Often one-way, from the leader to the

group.

➢ Focus: Task completion and efficiency.

Autocratic Leaders

➢ The authoritarian style, also known as autocratic leadership, is a leadership style where the leader holds all the power and makes decisions with little or no input from the group members. It's characterized by:

➢ Centralized control: The leader dictates policies, procedures, and tasks, and closely supervises how they are carried out.

➢ Limited input: Group members have little to no say in decision-making. Their opinions and suggestions may not

be sought or considered.

➢ Top-down communication: Communication flows

primarily from the leader to the group.There is often little

opportunity for feedback or dialogue.

➢ Emphasis on obedience: Compliance and adherence to

rules are expected. Questioning or challenging the leader's authority may be discouraged or punished.

Democratic leaders

➢ also known as participative leaders, are those who prioritize collaboration and shared decision-making within a group. They value the input and ideas of their team members and strive to create an inclusive environment where everyone feels heard and respected.

Here's a breakdown of their key characteristics: Key Traits of Democratic Leaders:

➢ Collaboration: They actively encourage participation and involve team members in the decision-making process.

➢ Communication: They foster open and two-way communication, actively listening to the ideas and concerns of others.

➢ Empowerment: They delegate tasks and responsibilities, giving team members a sense of ownership and autonomy.

➢ Facilitation: They guide discussions and help the group reach consensus, rather than dictating solutions.

➢ Fairness: They treat all team members fairly and value diverse perspectives.

➢ Transparency: They are open and honest about decisions and the reasons behind them.

Laissez-faire leadership

➢ also known as delegative leadership, is a hands-off approach where leaders provide minimal guidance or direction to their team members. The term "laissez-faire" is French for "let them do," which perfectly encapsulates this style.

Key Characteristics of Laissez-faire Leaders:

➢ Delegation: They delegate tasks and decision-making

authority to team members.

➢ Minimal intervention: They provide little to no direct

supervision or guidance.

➢ Empowerment: They trust team members to work

independently and make their own choices.

➢ Availability: While they may not be actively involved, they

are usually available to offer support or answer questions when needed.

Group conformity - is a fascinating and powerful social phenomenon where individuals adjust their behaviors, attitudes, or beliefs to align with those of a group. It's essentially the tendency to "go along with the crowd," even if you privately disagree.

Ex. Group Project

Groupthink - is a psychological phenomenon that occurs when a group of people, often in a decision-making context, prioritize reaching consensus or avoiding conflict over critically evaluating the situation or considering alternative viewpoints. In essence, it's when the desire for harmony within the group overrides sound judgment and independent thinking.

➢ Cohesive Group – members have a strong sense of belonging and loyalty to the group.

➢ Desire for Harmony – avoiding any disagreements or dissenting opinions.

➢ Suppression of Dissent – members may feel pressured to supress their own doubts or concerns, even if they had them.

➢ Direct Pressure – members who do express doubts may be directly pressured to conform to the group’s opinion.

➢ Mindguards – some members may act as “mindguards”, shielding the group from any information that might challenge their consensus.

Disadvantages:

➢ Poor decision-making ➢ Overconfidence

Ex. Group Project

GROUP COMMUNICATION STRUCTURE Wheel Network Structure

➢ Structure: Information flows through one central person, often the leader.

➢ Key Feature: Centralized control. The leader is the hub of all communication.

Pros:

➢ Efficient for simple tasks. ➢ Quick decision-making.

➢ Clear lines of authority.

Cons:

➢ Central person can become overloaded.

➢ Limits participation from others.

➢ Can lead to resentment if members feel excluded.

Ex. A Project with a Taskmaster Leader

➢ A project manager (central figure) assigns specific task to

each team member (team members)

➢ Team members report their progress and any issues directly

to the project norm.

➢ Team members may have limited communication with

each other, focusing on their individual task.

Chain Network Structure:

➢ Structure: Information flows in a linear sequence from one member to the next, like links in a chain.

➢ Key Feature: Linear flow of information. Pros:

➢ Clear lines of communication.

➢ Can be useful for tasks with sequential steps.

Cons:

➢ Can be slow.

➢ Information can get distorted as it passes along the chain. ➢ Members at the end of the chain may feel isolated.

Example:

Traditional Organizational Hierarchy

➢ The CEO (at the top of the chain) communicates a new policy to the Senior Vice President.

➢ The Senior Vice President then communicates it to the Department Managers

➢ The Department Managers then communicates it to the Team Leaders.

➢ Finally, the Team Leaders communicate it to the individual team members (at the bottom of the chain)

Y Network Structure

➢ Structure: Similar to the chain, but with branches. Information flows along a main path, but some members can only communicate with one person, creating a Y shape.

➢ Key Feature: Some members have limited communication access.

Pros:

➢ Can be more efficient than a chain for certain tasks.

➢ Still maintains some level of centralized control. Cons:

➢ Members at the ends of the Y may feel isolated.

➢ Potential for information bottlenecks at the junctions. Example:

Small Business with Department Heads

➢ The marketing manager and the sales manager (bottom of

the y) each report to the general manager (middle of the y) ➢ The general manager then reports to the owner (top of the

y).

➢ The marketing and sales manager may have some

interaction, but their primary communication regarding

strategy and performance is with the general manager. Circle Communication Structure

➢ All members of the group communicate directly and openly with one another.

Pros:

➢ Faster Decision-Making

Cons:

➢ Inconsistency

➢ Conflicting Decisions

Example:

Passing a message in a Meeting

➢ The chairperson (leader) starts by announcing something to the person on their right.

➢ That person tells the next person in the circle, and so on.

➢ The message continues to be passed around until it eventually reaches the chairperson again.

Chapter 5 • Selected Essential Elements of the Group Process

• ICEBREAKERS

• ACTIVE LISTENING

• DEFENSE MECHANISMS

• GIVING AND RECEIVING FEEDBACK

• CATHARSIS

• TRANSFERENCE AND PARATAXIC DISTORTION • COUNTER TRANSFERENCE

• RE-ENACTMENT

• While every group session is important and the value of each session needs to be fully realized, there is no doubt that the first group session sets the stage for the other sessions to follow.

• As such, the first session needs to be carefully facilitated so that all group members at the very beginning of the group process, stage one of the group’s development, derive a sense of comfort, acceptance and value.

• stage one tend to be uncertain, diffident, unconfident and seek a sense of inclusion, relying heavily on the group leader or facilitator for direction and connection. It is important, therefore, for the group facilitator to establish a climate of trust, comfort and confidentiality and to very clearly articulate the group’s purpose, goals and the expectations of all group members.

• The group process factors which are discussed below are essential to the effectiveness of the group.

ICEBREAKERS

• During the first session and during subsequent sessions as needed, using icebreakers is an effective way to help address the anxiety and uncertainty that members may feel.

• Icebreakers are activities that get group members interacting and involved with one another in a safe, non- judgmental and non-threatening way.

• The first ice-breaker should probably be kept to a relatively easy and fairly surface level, of low to moderate cognitive and emotional challenge. It should not require group members to share too much deep personal information at this stage. The purpose is to get group members talking and comfortable with one another.

• In this activity the content is light, non-threatening and should not provoke defensiveness or anxiety. It also includes topics that members in this early stage of the group may enjoy sharing and talking about. Additionally, it allows group members to meet and greet one another, get to know one another by name, and share aspects of themselves that can set the stage for forming deeper connections, bonding more and developing mutual trust.

Advantages:

• They help to alleviate initial awkwardness and tension, creating a more relaxed and comfortable environment. • This is especially valuable when people are meeting for the first time or when there's a need to encourage

open communication.

• Icebreakers can prompt even introverted individuals to engage, ensuring everyone feels included and valued. • This can lead to more active participation in subsequent discussions or activities.

Disadvantages:

• Especially in time-constrained settings, icebreakers can eat up valuable time that could be used for more

pressing matters.

• Some people, particularly introverts or those with social anxiety, may find icebreakers uncomfortable or even

stressful.

• Forcing participation can create a negative atmosphere.

ACTIVE LISTENING

• Listening is not the same as hearing.

• Individuals can hear what someone else says without listening. The difference between listening and hearing

is that the listener pays attention to the speaker and what the speaker says, so that what is heard is processed and digested in a meaningful way. Listening requires attention, focus and conscious processing of the information being heard. Hearing does not.

• Active listening is different from just listening or from passive listening, including all of the elements of passive listening and more. With active listening, the speaker feels and knows that he or she is being listened to by the verbal and non-verbal actions of the listener.

• In counseling, the counselor is encouraged to listen actively and to demonstrate active listening by using what are called minimal encouragers, such as eye direct and focused contact, appropriate nodding of the head, appropriate changes in body posture to mirror the client’s own posture, slight vocalizations such as “umm hmm,” and appropriate facial expressions.

• Additionally, the active listener asks for clarification, paraphrases and summarizes what was said. When group

members use active listening during the group process, the member who is listened to knows it, sees it, feels it and feels connected, valued and important.

DEFENSE MECHANISMS

• During the group process, particularly during therapeutic, sensitivity and support groups, some members use a variety of defense mechanisms to protect themselves from criticism by others or from being judged in a negative way.

• Defense mechanisms are unconscious psychological strategies used to protect oneself from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings.

• Defense mechanisms are unconscious ways that the ego finds to protect itself. The ego is that part of the conscious self that is protective of one’s sense of self- worth and self-esteem. To some degree defense mechanisms may work to protect the individual, but when overused defensive mechanisms can lead to maladaptive ways of thinking and behaving. Some of the most common defense mechanisms include the following:

o Denial: Insistence that one has not done or said something or does not feel a certain way.

o Rationalization: Advancing a reason for a behavior that appears plausible.

o Reaction Formation: Acting in a way that is completely opposite to the way one really feels about

a situation or toward someone.

o Sublimation: Finding a socially acceptable way to express a socially unacceptable desire

o Repression: Keeping from consciousness an unpleasant or disturbing experience.

o Regression: Psychologically and/or emotionally returning to an earlier developmental stage.

• Defense mechanisms operate largely outside of conscious awareness. This means people often use them without realizing it.

GIVING AND RECEIVING FEEDBACK

• The giving and receiving of feedback among group members throughout the group process is an indispensable process feature of most groups, especially counseling and therapy groups, sensitivity groups and support groups.

• When a group member gives feedback he or she reveals information about him or herself to others in the group that they may not have known before.

• When a group member receives feedback, he or she comes to know more about how he or she is being perceived by others.

• The giving and receiving of feedback also helps to cut through defense mechanisms that may be getting in the way of personal growth and progress. As a result, group members grow cognitively and emotionally from giving and receiving feedback. They learn things about other members and about themselves that help to enrich their experiences within the group and outside of the group.

• During the group process, the facilitator should encourage members to provide feedback to one another on an on-going basis.

o The first type of window is called the “Ideal Window.” This type of window represents good balance between giving and receiving feedback. In this window the arena or open area is the largest window pane and excellent work can take place as the individual experiences maximum benefit from and growth in the group. The ideal window is what individuals in groups should strive to achieve.

o The next type of window is called the “interviewer” window because the individual receives a great deal of information and feedback from others but shares very little and gives very little feedback. In this window the blind spot may be smaller because the individual gets much feedback but the arena is also very constricted and the façade or hidden area is large because the individual shares very little.

o The next type of window is called the “bull in a china shop” because the individual shares a great deal of information and gives much feedback to others but invites and receives very little feedback. In this window the blind spot is very large because the individual gets very little feedback and the arena is very constricted. The façade or hidden area may be relatively small because the individual may share and give feedback to others.

o The next type of window is called the “Turtle” because the individual does not share a great deal of information or gives much feedback to others and does not invite and receives very little feedback. In this window the blind subconscious or unknown is very large because the individual gets very little feedback and the arena is very constricted as are the other areas.

CATHARSIS

o Feedback is most effective when it is given in ways that help the recipient to process it, understand it and be able to use it. The following points about how to give feedback should be kept in mind. Feedback should be:

o focused on what a person does or says in a given situation and not on inferred motivations,

o specific and concrete, addressing the when, where and how of the behavior or statement about

which feedback is given,

o given as soon as possible after the target behavior or statement,

o informative about the impact of the target behavior or statement on the giver of the feedback,

and

o offered in a descriptive and non-judgmental way.

• Catharsis is the venting or expressing of feelings that an individual has been holding on to over a period of time. It usually occurs in therapeutic groups.

• The group process, including the giving and receiving of feedback in groups as discussed above, allows catharsis to occur. When catharsis occurs, the group member who has the cathartic experience purges him or herself of debilitating and regressive emotions that may hold that individual back from fully realizing his or her achievement and success potential and that limit that individual’s happiness.

• The release of repressed feelings through catharsis allows individual healing to occur.

TRANSFERENCE AND PARATAXIC DISTORTION

• In some instances, a group member may transfer or displace feelings held for someone outside of the group to the leader of the group. This is referred to as transference. Transference can be a healing experience for a group member and it may be beneficial to have that cathartic experience in the safety of the group. For example, a group member who is angry with his or her boss at work and who comes to the group with those feelings may direct that anger at the group leader who reminds him or her of the despised boss.

• When the transfer or displacement of feelings is directed at another member of the group as opposed to the leader of the group, this is known as parataxic distortion. The anger may be expressed verbally or non- verbally. The expression of the anger directed at the group leader or at another member in the group during the group process relieves the internal psychological pressure and emotional discomfort that the member feels.

COUNTER TRANSFERENCE

• Counter transference is said to occur when a practitioner, such as a counselor or therapist, unconsciously projects or transfers unresolved feelings to a client. In a group context, the leader or facilitator of the group process may respond to a group member’s expression of anger directed at him or her by becoming enraged. The group leader may castigate that member because the member reminds the group leader of his or her own sibling, with whom he or she may have had a volatile relationship. This reaction on the part of the group leader may disrupt the transference experience for the group member and compromise the therapeutic value of the interaction.

RE-ENACTMENT

• The therapeutic group process sometimes allows an individual group member to re-enact or replay family dynamics which may have had significant impact on the individual’s social and emotional development and condition. When family dynamics are replayed or re-enacted in the group, some group members may be the object of parataxic distortion and the group leader the object of transference. Family re-enactment can be a healing and growing process for the group member. Through the experience, the group member may make use of the safety of the group to address repressed emotions deeply rooted in past family experiences.