lecture 2.2

Diversity among cultures: Different interests and beliefs (e.g., playing guitar vs. collecting mugs).
Basic human needs: Despite cultural differences, all people need similar things like food, stability, and community.

Communities developed due to shared needs, evolving from villages to cities as farming advanced.
Agricultural advancements led to more reliable food sources, safety, and stability.
The formation of larger entities (empires) occurred when enough communities united, sharing common goals.

The Americas hosted established empires long before European arrival in the 15th century.
Major empires included the Aztecs in Mesoamerica and Incas in South America.
- Aztecs:
  - Located in Central Mexico, based on agriculture, using chinapas for farming.
  - Created a system for military recruitment from towns, could mobilize up to 200,000 men.
  - Specialized in tribute systems to govern conquered regions.
  - Flourished until internal unrest due to human sacrifice and tributes led to Spanish conquest in 1521 CE.
  - Significant population loss due to European diseases (e.g., smallpox).
- Incas:
  - Used Aylu communities for local governance, adapted from earlier Norte Chico civilization.
  - Established allegiance from Aylu to Incan rulers upon conquest.
  - Maintained an advanced and adaptable culture in challenging geographical conditions.

West Africa was a major gold producer, with the Mali Empire as a key player from 12th to 17th century.
- Mali Empire:
  - Expanded using existing trade routes and capitalized on gold, salt, slaves, and ivory.
  - Centralized government and military strength helped consolidate power.
  - Encountered civil strife and competition leading to the rise of the Songhai Empire.
Songhai Empire levered gold trade and Islamic diplomacy, ultimately overthrown by a Moroccan military campaign at the Battle of Tondibi (1591).

Factors leading to the decline of all empires:
- Conquest by external forces.
- Internal political infighting and civil wars.
- Diseases brought by colonizers.
Mischaracterization by colonial powers:
- Indigenous empires viewed as "less advanced" or "barbarous" despite their complex societies and histories.
- Colonial narratives often overshadow the advancements and substantial histories of these civilizations, leading to ongoing perceptions of inferiority.