Introduction to Sociology - Week Eight Day One
SOCL 1101: Intro to Sociology Week Eight - Day One
Instructor: JD Foster (he/him/his), PhD Candidate, Northeastern University
Today's Tentative Agenda
What is stratification?
Historic views of inequality
Modern theories of inequality
Perceptions of Equality
Standards of Equality
Forms of Stratification
Stratification
Geological Metaphor
“Strata” means layer
Societies are similar to the earth in that they are:
Organized into strata
Though they seem solid and unmoving, they are often fluid
Subject to upheavals that can restructure the landscape (e.g., Occupy Wall Street, MAGA)
Social Stratification
STRATIFICATION (Book Definition):
The hierarchical organization of a society into groups with differing levels of power, social prestige, status, and economic resources.
Socially constructed distinctions between the privileged and the deprived.
Mobility: Individual and collective mobility occurs, but these are shaped by social contexts.
Variability: Stratification varies across space and time, but usually follows predictable patterns.
Questions posed:
How?
Why?
What effects does it have on our lives?
Socioeconomic Status
SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS (SES): An individual’s position within a stratified social order.
In the U.S., SES categories include:
Upper class
Middle class
Working class
Poor
Definitions
INCOME: Money received by a person from work, transfers (gifts, inheritances, government assistance), or returns on investments.
WEALTH: An individual’s or family’s net worth (total assets minus total debts).
Social Mobility
SOCIAL MOBILITY: Movement between different positions within a system of stratification.
Types of Mobility
Horizontal Social Mobility: Transition from one social status to another on the same rung of the ladder.
Vertical Social Mobility: Refers to the rise or fall from one social stratum to another and can be:
Upward/ascending
Downward/descending
Vertical mobility can occur at the individual or group level.
Structural and Exchange Mobility
STRUCTURAL MOBILITY: Mobility caused by changes in the economy (e.g., expansion of high-tech jobs in the past 20 years).
EXCHANGE MOBILITY: Results from job swapping among individuals or groups.
Political Implications of Stratification
Political rhetoric often fueled by stratification and class inequality including:
Labor market uncertainty contributing to anti-immigrant sentiment
Populist movements opposed to Wall Street
The concept of the 1% vs. the 99%
Broader implications include:
The shape of society
Access to rewarding jobs
Impact on health, longevity, and family stability
Testing Class Inequality: SAT Scores
SAT: Student Affluence Test
Average scores on each SAT section correlated with parental income:
Parental Income Bracket
SAT Writing
SAT Reading
SAT Math
Combined Average
$0-$20k
400
300
100
800
$20-40k
500
400
200
1100
$40-60k
600
500
300
1400
$60-80k
700
600
400
1700
$80-100k
800
700
500
2000
$100-120k
900
800
600
2300
$120-140k
1000
900
700
2600
$140-160k
1100
1000
800
2900
$160-200k
1200
1100
900
3200
$200k+
1300
1200
1000
3500
Sociological Questions on Stratification
Key inquiry areas include:
Social influences on who gets ahead and their access to elite positions
The meaning of “class” and changes in the class structure over time
Class inequality's influence on public policy-making and implications for democracy
The U.S.'s status as an open society compared to European societies
Four Key Propositions on Stratification
Individual attributes alone cannot explain stratification; systemic aspects or institutionalized systems of inequality must be examined.
Physical differences have socially constructed meanings (e.g., height, beauty, racial identity).
Almost any marker can exclude individuals from privilege (e.g., religion, language, speech).
The same features can have different meanings across societies or times (e.g., body image).
Historic Views of Inequality
Rousseau vs. Scots
Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Argued that private property creates social inequality which leads to conflict.
Adam Ferguson and John Millar: Acknowledge inequality creation by private property but argue it leads to progress/innovation.
Malthus: Man Is Destined to Starve
Thomas Malthus viewed inequality as necessary for controlling population growth, fearing equal distribution would lead to unsustainable population levels.
Malthusian Theory: Belief that population growth surpasses means of subsistence, requiring checks through disasters or moral restraint.
Hegel's Dialectic
DIALECTIC: Two-directional relationship where thesis is countered by antithesis leading to synthesis.
Hegel believed history is evolving towards greater equality.
Hegel's Dialectic Structure:
Thesis
Antithesis
Synthesis
Modern Theories of Inequality
Functionalism
Core Argument: Modifying stratification disrupts social order, requiring limitation of change.
Assumptions:
Institutions cultivate human skills, rewards correspond to functional importance.
Assumes no alternative motivations exist.
Davis and Moore's Theory of Stratification (1945)
Stratification persists across societies including Soviet states; exists for a reason.
Claims inequalities arise as a device to fill critical positions in society with qualified persons.
Critiques of Davis & Moore
The theory presumes ideal conditions over reality.
Positions are often filled without merit, influenced by inequitable advantages.
Doesn’t account for the actual range of societal inequalities.
Rejects relevant individual motivations or value of non-competitive high-paying roles.
Marx and Weber
Marx’s Dialectic Materialism: Change resultant from struggles over control of economic resources.
DIALECTIC MATERIALISM: History defined by conflicts over material resources.
Marx divided society into PROLETARIAT (working class) and BOURGEOISIE (capitalist class).
Weber's Critique of Marx
Weber emphasized the importance of ideas as factors influencing class and socioeconomic status.
Class identity relates to common life chances in the market rather than just economic class.
Marx and Weber (Continued)
Petit Bourgeoisie
Marx's View: Viewed as aspiring capitalists.
Weber's View: More complex; suggests multifaceted identities.
Marx Predictions on Capitalism
Capital accumulation leads to class polarization.
Growth of the proletariat through urbanization and unions.
Deepening economic crises.
Growing class consciousness leads to revolutions, suggesting that working-class action would be more effective than parliamentary methods.
Benefits of Marx's Theories
Challenges classlessness myth; promotes a critical view of ideologies.
Argues that in capitalism, virtually everything is commodified.
Critiques of Marx's Theories
Underestimation of the expansion of intermediate classes and political reforms.
Neglects other sources of conflict, such as racial, ethnic, and nationalism issues.
Neo-Marxist Views
Class defined by control over production and labor dynamics introduces ambiguity in class relations.
Women and minorities remain disadvantaged.
The Gig Economy
Defined as markets that match providers to consumers on a job basis, facilitating on-demand commerce (e.g., Uber).
Gig workers have autonomy and choose their work schedule, reflecting aspects of individual freedom.
Status-Attainment Model
STATUS-ATTAINMENT MODEL: Ranks individuals by socioeconomic status, focusing on income and educational attainment as predictors of career success.
Observations indicate parental education and net worth are primary predictors of children's outcomes.
Critique of Status-Attainment Theory
Emphasis on mobility without addressing why class structures change over time.
Increasing data shows declining social mobility in the U.S. compared to Europe.
Cultural Theories of Stratification
Recognition that class is influenced by cultural tastes and lifestyles rather than just wealth.
Exposure to cultural capital influences status and can serve as a marker of classification.
Pierre Bourdieu theorizes that tastes both reflect and reinforce social class positions.
Perceptions of Equality
Perception versus Reality
Group discussions on perceived versus actual CEO compensation highlights disparity between public perception and reality.
Average perception of CEO to worker pay gap is perceived as 36 to 1, ideal should be 7 to 1.
Actual ratio (top 350 firms, 2017) is 312 to 1.
Standards of Equality
Definitions
EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY: Everyone should have equal chances to achieve wealth and status; depicted by antidiscrimination laws.
EQUALITY OF CONDITION: Implies equal starting conditions for all individuals.
EQUALITY OF OUTCOME: Ensures that everyone ends up with the same amount regardless of fairness in the process.
Under equality of outcome, motivations for effort are transformed (altruism).
FREE RIDER PROBLEM: When group responsibilities are shared, individuals may shirk efforts, relying on others.
Forms of Stratification
Types
Estate System: Characterized by limited mobility, politically based.
Caste System: No mobility, stratified by hereditary elements.
Class System: Economically based but with some mobility.
Status Hierarchy System: Based on social prestige.
Elite-Mass Dichotomy System: Features governing elites vs. masses; reflects meritocratic ideals.
Critiques of Elite-Mass Dichotomy
C. Wright Mills argues against its naturalness or societal benefits.
Claims that decision-making power is increasingly centralized in economic, political, and military institutions.
Conclusion
Understanding the multifaceted dimensions of stratification is crucial for analyzing social relations and inequalities.
The discourse is continually evolving, influenced by economic, sociopolitical, and cultural factors.
NOTE:
Participate for grade points by scanning the QR Code provided in class.