# Intro to IT — Complete supplied flashcards
Coverage: all vocabulary supplied in chat and study content from the four PowerPoints. Shared terms are combined. All 100 acronyms from the complete numbered list are included, plus additional vocabulary acronyms. Definitions are concise study explanations, not verbatim slide quotations.
Practice each ordinary card both ways: explain the term, then hide the term and name it from the definition. For acronyms give the expansion AND purpose. Slide-practice cards are question/answer cards.
## Acronyms — Hardware & OS
**CPU**
Central Processing Unit — Executes instructions and performs the computer's main calculations.
**GPU**
Graphics Processing Unit — Processes graphics and many calculations in parallel.
**RAM**
Random Access Memory — Temporary working memory for active programs and data; normally loses contents without power.
**ROM**
Read-Only Memory — Nonvolatile memory that retains stored instructions without power.
**HDD**
Hard Disk Drive — Stores data magnetically on spinning disks.
**SSD**
Solid-State Drive — Stores data in flash memory with no moving mechanical parts.
**NVMe**
Non-Volatile Memory Express — A protocol designed for fast access to nonvolatile storage, commonly SSDs over PCIe.
**SATA**
Serial Advanced Technology Attachment — An interface used to connect storage devices such as HDDs and SSDs.
**USB**
Universal Serial Bus — A standard connection for peripherals, data transfer, and power.
**PCIe**
Peripheral Component Interconnect Express — A high-speed connection for internal components such as graphics cards and NVMe SSDs.
**PSU**
Power Supply Unit — Converts incoming electrical power into the power needed by computer components.
**BIOS**
Basic Input/Output System — Traditional firmware that initializes hardware and starts the boot process.
**UEFI**
Unified Extensible Firmware Interface — Modern firmware interface that initializes hardware and starts the OS boot process.
**POST**
Power-On Self-Test — Startup checks that test essential hardware before booting.
**OS**
Operating System — Manages hardware and provides services for applications and users.
**GUI**
Graphical User Interface — An interface using windows, icons, menus, and graphical controls.
**CLI**
Command-Line Interface — An interface where users type commands.
**I/O**
Input/Output — Data entering or leaving a computer or component.
**VM**
Virtual Machine — A software-based computer that can run its own operating system.
**VMM**
Virtual Machine Monitor — A hypervisor; software that creates and manages virtual machines and their hardware access.
## Acronyms — Storage
**RAID**
Redundant Array of Independent Disks — Combines disks for performance, redundancy, or both, depending on the level. Not every level provides redundancy, and RAID is not a backup.
**NAS**
Network Attached Storage — A device or system that provides shared file storage over a network.
**SAN**
Storage Area Network — A specialized network providing block-level storage to servers.
**NTFS**
New Technology File System — A filesystem commonly used by Windows, supporting features such as permissions and journaling.
**FAT**
File Allocation Table — A family of filesystems that tracks file storage using an allocation table.
**GPT**
GUID Partition Table — A modern partition layout describing how a disk is divided into partitions.
**MBR**
Master Boot Record — A traditional disk layout whose first sector contains boot code and a partition table.
**ISO**
International Organization for Standardization; in the course's storage context, an ISO file is an optical-disc image used for installation or distribution. ISO is the organization's short name, not an English initialism.
**ASCII**
American Standard Code for Information Interchange — A character-encoding standard representing basic text characters as numbers.
**UTF**
Unicode Transformation Format — Encodings such as UTF-8 that represent Unicode characters as stored or transmitted data.
## Acronyms — Networking
**LAN**
Local Area Network — Connects devices in a limited area such as a home, office, or campus.
**WAN**
Wide Area Network — Connects networks across large geographic areas.
**WLAN**
Wireless Local Area Network — A local network using wireless connections, commonly Wi-Fi.
**NIC**
Network Interface Card — Hardware that connects a device to a network.
**MAC**
Media Access Control — The data-link function associated with local network access; a MAC address identifies a network interface on the local network.
**IP**
Internet Protocol — Addresses and routes packets between networks.
**IPv4**
Internet Protocol Version 4 — IP version using 32-bit addresses.
**IPv6**
Internet Protocol Version 6 — IP version using 128-bit addresses.
**TCP**
Transmission Control Protocol — Provides reliable, ordered delivery of a byte stream with error recovery.
**UDP**
User Datagram Protocol — Sends datagrams with low overhead without guaranteeing delivery or order.
**DNS**
Domain Name System — Resolves domain names to records such as IP addresses.
**DHCP**
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol — Automatically provides IP configuration, such as an address, gateway, and DNS servers.
**NAT**
Network Address Translation — Translates IP addresses between networks, commonly allowing private devices to share a public address.
**ARP**
Address Resolution Protocol — Finds the MAC address associated with an IPv4 address on a local network.
**ICMP**
Internet Control Message Protocol — Carries network error and diagnostic messages; used by ping.
**HTTP**
Hypertext Transfer Protocol — Transfers web resources between clients and servers.
**HTTPS**
Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure — HTTP protected by TLS encryption and authentication.
**SSH**
Secure Shell — Provides encrypted remote login and command execution.
**FTP**
File Transfer Protocol — Transfers files; traditional FTP does not encrypt credentials or data.
**SFTP**
SSH File Transfer Protocol — Transfers files securely over SSH.
**SMTP**
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol — Sends and relays email.
**IMAP**
Internet Message Access Protocol — Accesses and synchronizes email stored on a mail server.
**VPN**
Virtual Private Network — Creates a logical private connection over another network, commonly using an encrypted tunnel.
**VLAN**
Virtual Local Area Network — Logically separates a switched network into distinct broadcast domains.
**AP**
Access Point — Connects wireless devices to a network.
## Acronyms — Security
**CIA**
Confidentiality, Integrity, Availability — Three core security goals: keep information accessible only to authorized parties, protect it from improper alteration, and ensure authorized users can access it when needed.
**AAA**
Authentication, Authorization, Accounting — Verifies identity, determines allowed actions, and records activity or resource use.
**MFA**
Multi-Factor Authentication — Requires two or more different types of authentication factors, such as a password plus a security key. Two passwords alone are not different factor types.
**SSO**
Single Sign-On — Lets a user sign in once and access multiple connected applications without separately signing in to each one.
**IAM**
Identity and Access Management — Policies and tools for managing digital identities and controlling access to resources.
**ACL**
Access Control List — A list of rules specifying which users or systems may access a resource or which network traffic is allowed or denied.
**RBAC**
Role-Based Access Control — Assigns permissions to roles and gives users access through their assigned roles.
**PKI**
Public Key Infrastructure — Systems, policies, and certificates used to manage public keys and establish trust in digital identities.
**CA**
Certificate Authority — A trusted entity that issues and digitally signs certificates linking identities to public keys.
**AES**
Advanced Encryption Standard — A symmetric encryption algorithm that uses the same secret key for encryption and decryption.
**RSA**
Rivest-Shamir-Adleman — A public-key cryptographic algorithm using a public/private key pair for operations such as encryption and digital signatures.
**SHA**
Secure Hash Algorithm — A family of algorithms that produces fixed-length hash values used to help check data integrity; hashing is not reversible encryption.
**TLS**
Transport Layer Security — A protocol that protects network communications through encryption, integrity checks, and authentication; used by HTTPS.
**CVE**
Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures — A system of identifiers and records for publicly disclosed cybersecurity vulnerabilities.
**CVSS**
Common Vulnerability Scoring System — A framework for rating the severity of vulnerabilities; a severity score is not a complete measure of an organization's risk.
**EDR**
Endpoint Detection and Response — Tools that monitor endpoint activity to detect, investigate, and respond to threats on devices.
**XDR**
Extended Detection and Response — Integrates detection and response across multiple security data sources, such as endpoints, networks, email, and cloud systems.
**IDS**
Intrusion Detection System — Monitors activity for signs of attacks and generates alerts.
**IPS**
Intrusion Prevention System — Detects suspicious activity and can automatically block or prevent malicious traffic.
**SIEM**
Security Information and Event Management — Collects and correlates security logs and events to support monitoring, alerts, and investigation.
**SOC**
Security Operations Center — A team or facility that monitors, investigates, and responds to cybersecurity threats.
**DLP**
Data Loss Prevention — Tools and policies that help detect and prevent unauthorized exposure of sensitive data.
**AV**
Antivirus — Software that detects, blocks, and removes malware.
**IOC**
Indicator of Compromise — Evidence suggesting a system may have been compromised, such as a known malicious file hash.
**TTP**
Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures — Attackers' goals, methods, and detailed actions used to conduct attacks.
## Acronyms — Cloud & Operations
**SaaS**
Software as a Service — Ready-to-use software delivered over a network with the provider managing the application and infrastructure.
**PaaS**
Platform as a Service — A managed platform for building and running applications without managing underlying servers and operating systems.
**IaaS**
Infrastructure as a Service — Rented computing, storage, and networking resources; customers manage their OS and applications.
**CSP**
Cloud Service Provider — A company that supplies cloud computing services.
**API**
Application Programming Interface — Defined rules through which software requests functions or exchanges data with other software.
**SDK**
Software Development Kit — Tools, libraries, and documentation for building software for a platform or service.
**SLA**
Service Level Agreement — An agreement defining service commitments such as availability and support response times.
**UPS**
Uninterruptible Power Supply — Provides temporary battery power when normal power fails.
**BYOD**
Bring Your Own Device — A policy allowing personal devices to access organizational resources.
**MDM**
Mobile Device Management — Tools for centrally configuring, securing, and managing mobile devices.
**BCP**
Business Continuity Plan — A plan for keeping essential business operations running during a disruption.
**DRP**
Disaster Recovery Plan — A plan for restoring IT systems and data after a major disruption.
**RTO**
Recovery Time Objective — The target maximum time to restore a service: how long it can be down.
**RPO**
Recovery Point Objective — The target acceptable data loss measured in time: how much recent data can be lost.
**MTBF**
Mean Time Between Failures — Average operating time between failures of a repairable system; higher generally means more reliable.
**MTTR**
Mean Time to Repair — Average time required to repair a failed system; lower generally means faster repair.
**SOP**
Standard Operating Procedure — Written steps for performing a routine task consistently.
**KPI**
Key Performance Indicator — A measurement used to evaluate progress toward a goal.
**EOL**
End of Life — The end of a product's planned lifecycle; specific retirement milestones vary by vendor.
**EOS**
End of Support — When a vendor stops providing support for a product, typically including standard fixes and security updates.
## Shared command-line vocabulary
**Command Line**
A text-based way to give instructions to a computer.
**Command Prompt / CMD**
The traditional Windows command-line interpreter.
**PowerShell**
Microsoft's command shell and scripting environment used for management and automation; its pipeline commonly passes objects.
**Terminal**
The application or window used to interact with a shell.
**Shell**
Software that interprets commands and provides access to operating-system services.
**Command**
An instruction entered into a shell.
**Syntax**
The rules for writing a command correctly.
**Argument**
A value supplied to a command or parameter, such as a filename.
**Parameter / Option**
A modifier that changes a command's behavior; PowerShell commonly uses -Name, and Linux options often begin with - or --.
**Directory / Folder**
A filesystem container for files and other directories.
**Subdirectory**
A directory inside another directory.
**Parent Directory**
The directory immediately above the current directory.
**Root Directory**
The highest level of a filesystem tree; / in Linux and, for example, C:\ for a Windows volume.
**Current Directory / Working Directory**
The directory in which the shell is currently operating.
**Drive**
A storage location, commonly identified by a letter such as C: in Windows.
**C: Drive**
The Windows drive commonly containing the OS and many applications and files.
**File**
A named collection of stored data.
**Filesystem**
The method used to organize, store, name, and retrieve files and directories.
**Path**
The location of a file or directory in a filesystem.
**Absolute Path**
A complete path starting at a root, such as C:\Users\student or /home/student.
**Relative Path**
A path interpreted from the current location, such as .\Labs or ../Notes.
**Backslash (\)**
The separator commonly used between directories in Windows paths.
**File Extension**
Characters after the final period in a filename that can indicate its type, such as .txt or .exe.
**Executable**
A file containing instructions that can run as a program.
**Hierarchy / File System Hierarchy**
An organizational structure with levels, such as directories containing subdirectories.
**Directory Tree**
A visual representation of the directory hierarchy.
**Navigation**
Moving between filesystem locations.
**Prompt**
Text showing that a shell is ready for input; it can also show user and location information.
**File Explorer**
The Windows graphical application for managing files and folders.
**Windows**
Microsoft's family of operating systems.
**Environment Variable**
A named value storing information about the system or user environment.
**PATH**
An environment variable listing directories searched for executable commands.
**Administrator**
An account or elevated security context permitted to perform system-level changes.
**Permissions**
Rules controlling actions such as reading, writing, executing, or deleting resources.
**Access Control**
Determining who or what can access a resource and what actions are allowed.
**Local Computer**
The computer being used directly, rather than a remote computer.
**Local Storage**
Data stored directly on the computer rather than on a network or cloud service.
**Cloud Storage**
Files stored on remote servers and accessed over a network.
**OneDrive**
Microsoft's cloud file storage and synchronization service.
**Cmdlet**
A specialized PowerShell command, usually named in Verb-Noun form.
**Verb-Noun**
PowerShell's naming pattern: the verb indicates the action and the noun its target, such as Get-Process.
**Alias**
An alternate command name; in Windows PowerShell, dir is an alias for Get-ChildItem.
**. (path symbol)**
Represents the current directory.
**.. (path symbol)**
Represents the parent directory.
**Wildcard**
A pattern character used to match names; * commonly matches zero or more characters.
**Pipeline / Pipe**
The | symbol connects one command's output to another's input. PowerShell commonly passes objects; ordinary Linux command pipelines carry byte streams, often text.
**Object**
Structured data with properties, and potentially methods, manipulated by PowerShell.
**Script**
A saved collection of commands that can be run as a program.
**Automation**
Using commands or scripts to perform tasks automatically.
**Tab Completion**
Pressing Tab to complete command, parameter, file, or directory names.
**Execution Policy**
PowerShell rules governing script loading and execution conditions; a safety feature, not a security boundary.
## Linux vocabulary
**Linux**
The kernel around which Linux operating-system distributions are built; also commonly used for the OS family.
**Linux Distribution / Distro**
A complete system combining the Linux kernel, utilities, software, and a package manager; examples include Ubuntu, Debian, Fedora, and Kali.
**Kernel**
The privileged OS core managing CPU time, memory, processes, devices, and other resources.
**Bash**
Bourne Again Shell — A widely used Linux and Unix-like command shell.
**Home Directory**
A user's personal directory, commonly /home/username in Linux.
**~**
In Bash path expansion, shorthand for the current user's home directory.
**Case Sensitive**
Uppercase and lowercase are different; File.txt and file.txt can be separate Linux files.
**Hidden File**
A file omitted from ordinary listings; Linux names beginning with . are hidden by convention.
**Redirection**
Sending command input or output to another source or destination, such as writing output to a file.
**Standard Output / stdout**
A command's normal output stream.
**Standard Input / stdin**
The input stream a command reads.
**Root User**
The Linux superuser account with extensive administrative privileges; distinct from the root directory.
**Process**
An instance of a program that is currently executing.
**Package**
A bundled unit of software that can be installed and managed.
**Package Manager**
Software that installs, updates, and removes packages.
## OS structure
**Drive Letter**
A Windows identifier for a storage volume, such as C: or D:.
**Volume**
A logical storage area containing a filesystem.
**Mount**
Make a filesystem accessible at a location in the directory structure.
**Mount Point**
The directory at which a filesystem is attached to the directory tree.
**User Profile**
A user's Windows files, settings, and application data, commonly under C:\Users\username.
**ext4**
Fourth Extended Filesystem — A commonly used Linux filesystem.
**Registry**
A hierarchical Windows database containing system and application configuration.
**Configuration File**
A file containing settings used by the OS or an application.
**/etc**
Linux hierarchy containing system-wide configuration files.
**/home**
Linux directory commonly containing users' home directories.
**/usr**
Linux hierarchy containing applications, libraries, and other user-space resources.
**/var**
Linux hierarchy for changing data such as logs and caches.
**/dev**
Linux directory containing special files representing devices.
**/tmp**
Directory commonly used for temporary files.
**/boot**
Linux directory containing files used during startup.
**Read Permission**
For a regular file, permits viewing its contents.
**Write Permission**
For a regular file, permits modifying its contents.
**Execute Permission**
For a file, permits execution when otherwise runnable; for a directory, permits traversal/access to entries by name.
**UAC**
User Account Control — Windows mechanism that controls administrative privilege elevation.
**Thread**
A unit of execution within a process.
**Device Driver**
Software that lets the OS communicate with specific hardware.
**System Call**
A controlled request from a program to the kernel for an OS service.
**User Space**
The less-privileged environment where normal applications run.
**Kernel Space**
The highly privileged environment where the kernel and core OS functions execute.
**CPU Scheduling**
Deciding which processes or threads receive CPU time.
**Memory Management**
Allocating and protecting memory used by processes.
**Virtual Memory**
A memory-management system giving processes virtual address spaces; it can use storage to support memory operations, but is more than just disk used as RAM.
**Service**
A Windows program designed to operate in the background, often without direct user interaction.
**Daemon**
The traditional Linux/Unix term for a background service process.
**Boot Process**
The sequence from powering on a computer until the operating system is ready.
## Windows CMD commands
**cd**
Changes directory. Example: cd Notes. With no arguments in CMD, displays the current directory.
**cd ..**
Moves to the parent directory.
**cd \**
Moves to the root of the current drive.
**C:**
Selects the C: drive in CMD; use cd \ afterward to reach its root.
**dir**
Lists files and directories in CMD.
**mkdir / md**
Creates a directory. Example: mkdir Labs.
**tree**
Displays the directory hierarchy.
**cls**
Clears the Command Prompt screen.
**rmdir / rd**
Removes a directory; without additional options it must be empty.
**copy**
Copies files. Example: copy notes.txt Labs\.
**move**
Moves a file or directory. Example: move notes.txt Labs\.
**ren**
Renames a file or directory. Example: ren old.txt new.txt.
**del**
Deletes files.
**type**
Displays the contents of a text file in CMD.
**echo**
Displays text; can be combined with redirection to write to a file.
**explorer**
Opens File Explorer. Example: explorer C:\Alvernia.
## PowerShell commands
**Get-Location**
Shows the current location.
**Set-Location**
Changes location. Example: Set-Location .\Labs.
**Get-ChildItem**
Lists items such as files and directories.
**New-Item**
Creates an item. Directory: New-Item -ItemType Directory -Name Labs. File: New-Item -ItemType File -Name notes.txt.
**Get-Content**
Reads file contents. Example: Get-Content .\notes.txt.
**Set-Content**
Writes or replaces file content. Example: Set-Content .\notes.txt "Hello".
**Copy-Item**
Copies an item. Example: Copy-Item .\notes.txt .\Labs\.
**Move-Item**
Moves an item. Example: Move-Item .\notes.txt .\Labs\.
**Rename-Item**
Renames an item. Example: Rename-Item .\old.txt new.txt.
**Remove-Item**
Deletes an item; filesystem deletion normally bypasses the Recycle Bin.
**Get-Command**
Finds available commands. Example: Get-Command *process*.
**Get-Help**
Shows command help. Example: Get-Help Get-ChildItem -Examples.
**Get-Process**
Displays running processes.
**Sort-Object**
Sorts objects by values or properties. Example: Sort-Object CPU -Descending.
**Select-Object**
Selects objects or properties. Examples: Select-Object Name and Select-Object -First 5.
**Get-Service**
Lists services; appears as a Verb-Noun example in the PowerShell slides.
## Linux commands
**pwd**
Prints the current working directory.
**ls**
Lists directory contents.
**cd**
Changes the shell's current directory.
**mkdir**
Creates directories. Example: mkdir Labs.
**touch**
Creates an empty file if absent or updates timestamps if it exists.
**cat**
Displays or concatenates file contents.
**less**
Displays text one screen at a time.
**cp**
Copies files; use an option such as -r to copy directories recursively.
**mv**
Moves or renames files and directories.
**rm**
Removes files; directory removal requires additional options. Normally does not move files to a desktop trash folder.
**rmdir**
Removes empty directories.
**clear**
Clears the terminal display.
**echo**
Displays text or expanded variable values.
**whoami**
Displays the effective current username.
**man**
Opens a command's manual page. Example: man ls.
**history**
Displays shell command history.
**grep**
Searches text for a pattern.
**find**
Searches for files and directories based on criteria.
**head**
Displays the beginning of a file, normally the first 10 lines.
**tail**
Displays the end of a file, normally the last 10 lines.
**chmod**
Changes file permissions.
**sudo**
Runs a command as another user, usually root, when authorized.
**ps**
Displays a snapshot of processes; which processes appear depends on options.
**top**
Displays an updating view of processes and system activity.
## Slide practice — Explain the command
**Linux: ls -l**
Lists contents in long format, including permissions and other details.
**Linux: ls -a**
Lists entries including hidden dotfiles.
**Linux: cd ~**
Changes to your home directory.
**Linux: cd -**
Changes back to the previous working directory.
**Linux: echo "Hello" > notes.txt**
Writes Hello to notes.txt, creating it or replacing its existing contents.
**Linux: echo "Hello" >> notes.txt**
Appends Hello to notes.txt, creating it if needed.
**Linux: ls *.txt**
Lists names matching the .txt pattern in the current directory; ordinary globbing does not include leading-dot hidden names by default.
**Linux: find . -name "*.txt"**
Searches the current directory and descendants for names matching *.txt.
**Linux: grep "Linux" notes.txt**
Prints lines in notes.txt matching Linux.
**Linux: history | grep "cd"**
Filters command history for lines containing cd.
**Linux: ps | less**
Presents process output in a pager for reading one screen at a time.
**Linux: chmod +x script.sh**
Adds execute permission to script.sh, subject to the command's permission-selection rules.
**Linux: ls --help**
Displays the ls command's built-in usage help.
**PowerShell: Get-Process | Sort-Object CPU -Descending | Select-Object -First 5**
Lists five processes with the highest accumulated CPU time among those returned; this is not instantaneous CPU percentage.
**PowerShell: Get-ChildItem | Select-Object Name**
Lists just the Name property of items in the current location.
**PowerShell: Get-Help Get-ChildItem -Examples**
Shows usage examples for Get-ChildItem when available in the installed help.
**PowerShell: Get-Command *process***
Finds available commands whose names match the process wildcard pattern.
**CMD: cd C:\Alvernia\Intro_to_IT**
Changes to that absolute directory on C:. In CMD, add /d to also change the active drive when starting on another drive.
## Slide practice — Comparisons & scenarios
**How do Windows and Linux organize storage roots?**
Windows commonly assigns letters to volumes, such as C: and D:. Linux attaches filesystems beneath one tree rooted at / using mount points.
**What is the Linux counterpart of C:\Users\student?**
Usually /home/student, the user's home directory.
**Where do Windows and Linux commonly store system configuration?**
Windows uses the Registry and configuration files. Linux heavily uses files, often under /etc.
**Where do Windows and Linux commonly store programs?**
Windows: C:\Program Files and C:\Program Files (x86). Linux: locations such as /usr/bin, /usr/local/bin, and /opt.
**What is the difference between a terminal, shell, and kernel?**
Terminal: interface window. Shell: command interpreter. Kernel: privileged core managing resources and OS services.
**How does a process differ from a thread?**
A process is a running program instance; a thread is an execution unit within a process.
**What is the difference between a root directory and root user?**
The root directory is the top filesystem location (/ in Linux). The root user is a privileged account.
**What happens when you create a directory with a command?**
The shell interprets the command; a program requests an OS operation; the kernel checks access and filesystem rules; filesystem metadata and storage are updated.
**Name the simplified OS layers from application to hardware.**
Applications → system libraries/APIs → kernel → device drivers → hardware. This is the slides' simplified model; drivers can run as part of the kernel.
**What are the kernel's main responsibilities?**
CPU scheduling, memory allocation/protection, process management, hardware communication through drivers, and filesystem/network/security services.
**Compare a typical PowerShell pipeline with a Linux command pipeline.**
PowerShell commonly passes structured objects with properties. Ordinary Linux pipelines pass byte streams, often text.
**Compare DIR and TREE in CMD.**
DIR lists the contents of a directory. TREE shows the directory hierarchy.
**Name the command to list files in CMD, PowerShell, and Linux.**
CMD: dir. PowerShell: Get-ChildItem. Linux: ls.
**Name the command to show the current directory in CMD, PowerShell, and Linux.**
CMD: cd with no arguments. PowerShell: Get-Location. Linux: pwd.
**Name the command to change directory in CMD, PowerShell, and Linux.**
CMD: cd. PowerShell: Set-Location. Linux: cd.
**Name the command to create a directory in CMD, PowerShell, and Linux.**
CMD: mkdir or md. PowerShell: New-Item -ItemType Directory. Linux: mkdir.
**Name the command to read a text file in CMD, PowerShell, and Linux.**
CMD: type. PowerShell: Get-Content. Linux: cat (or a pager such as less).
**Name the command to copy a file in CMD, PowerShell, and Linux.**
CMD: copy. PowerShell: Copy-Item. Linux: cp.
**Name the command to move a file in CMD, PowerShell, and Linux.**
CMD: move. PowerShell: Move-Item. Linux: mv.
**Name the command to rename a file in CMD, PowerShell, and Linux.**
CMD: ren. PowerShell: Rename-Item. Linux: mv.
**Name the command to delete a file in CMD, PowerShell, and Linux.**
CMD: del. PowerShell: Remove-Item. Linux: rm.
**Name the command to get command help in PowerShell and Linux.**
PowerShell: Get-Help. Linux: man or a supported --help option.
**Linux: create Labs and an empty file named notes.txt inside it.**
mkdir Labs, then touch Labs/notes.txt (assuming Labs does not already exist).
**PowerShell: create Labs and an empty file named notes.txt inside it.**
New-Item -ItemType Directory -Name Labs, then New-Item -ItemType File -Path .\Labs\notes.txt.
**Linux: rename old.txt to new.txt.**
mv old.txt new.txt
**Linux: find all .txt filenames beneath the current directory.**
find . -name "*.txt"
**Linux: search notes.txt for lines containing error.**
grep "error" notes.txt
**How do > and >> differ?**
> writes output and replaces an existing file's content; >> appends output.
**Why be careful with rm and Remove-Item?**
They normally remove files without using the desktop trash or Recycle Bin, and confirmation is not guaranteed.
**How do Linux file permissions divide users?**
The classic model separates owner, group, and others, with read (r), write (w), and execute (x) permissions.
**What does -rwxr-xr-- show?**
A regular file: owner can read/write/execute; group can read/execute; others can read.
**Why can Linux execute a file without .exe?**
Execution depends on permissions and a valid executable format or interpreter, not a required .exe suffix.
**How do Windows and Linux typically treat filename case?**
Windows normally treats Report.txt and report.txt as the same name. Linux commonly treats them as distinct. Configuration/filesystem exceptions exist.
**How do services and daemons compare?**
Both provide background functions; service is the Windows term used in the course, and daemon is the traditional Linux/Unix term.
**Why use text configuration to manage many servers?**
It can be inspected, copied, compared, and edited through scripts, making repeatable administration easier.
**What is the difference between a filesystem and a directory tree?**
A filesystem defines storage organization and behavior; a directory tree is the hierarchy of named locations it presents.
**What is the difference between RTO and RPO?**
RTO is acceptable restoration time/downtime. RPO is acceptable data loss expressed as time.
**What is the difference between DNS and DHCP?**
DNS looks up names and records such as addresses. DHCP automatically supplies network configuration.
**What is the difference between TCP and UDP?**
TCP provides reliable ordered delivery; UDP sends datagrams without built-in delivery or ordering guarantees.
**What is the difference between BCP and DRP?**
BCP keeps essential business operations going; DRP restores IT systems and data.