POS3330 BB4

CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH DESIGN

Outline of Research Design

• The Purposes of Research

• The Logic of Nomothetic Explanation

• Necessary and Sufficient Causes

• Units of Analysis

• The Time Dimension

• How to Design a Research Project

• The Research Proposal

• The Ethics of Research Design

• Quick Quiz

The Purposes of Research

1. Exploration

• Aims to satisfy the researcher’s curiosity.

• Tests feasibility of conducting a more extensive study.

• Develops methodologies for subsequent studies.

• Examples needed for clarification.

2. Description

• Describes situations and events through scientific observation.

  • not necessarily looking for an explanation, observing to observe is useful too

• Examples needed for clarification.

3. (Re-) Categorization

4. Explanation

• Descriptive Studies: Address what, where, when, how.

• Explanatory Studies: Address why.

• Examples needed for clarification.

Prediction and Prescription

• Involves making careful short-term forecasts for policy-making.

The Logic of Nomothetic Explanation

• The goal is to identify a few factors that account for variations in a phenomenon.

Example: Legalization of Marijuana

• Idiographic Approach: Focus on individual experiences (parents, teachers, clergy).

• Nomothetic Approach: General factors influencing attitudes (political orientation, etc.).

Criteria for Nomothetic Causality

1. Correlation: An empirical relationship between two variables where changes in one relate to changes in the other.

2. Temporal Order: The cause occurs before the effect.

3. Non-Spuriousness: Eliminates false correlations caused by a third variable.

4. Logical Explanation: A non-standard, yet reasoned causal relationship.

Example of Spurious Correlation

• Observed Correlation: Bigger shoe size may seem linked to greater math skills.

• Actual Causation: Both shoe size and math skills increase with age.

Nomothetic Causal Analysis and Hypothesis Testing

• Hypotheses are not mandatory in nomothetic research.

• To test a hypothesis:

  • Specify related variables.

  • Measure variables.

  • Hypothesize correlation and statistical significance.

  • Specify tests for spuriousness.

False Criteria for Nomothetic Causality

• Complete Causation can lead to misinterpretations.

• Exceptional Cases may not represent majority trends.

Necessary and Sufficient Causes

• Necessary Cause: Must be present for an effect to occur.

• Sufficient Cause: Guarantees the effect when present.

• Most research outcomes benefit from identifying both types of causes.

Units of Analysis

Aggregates vs. Individuals

• Individuals: Common unit in social research.

• Groups, Organizations, Social Interactions:

  • Individuals: Students, voters, etc.

  • Groups: Family units, friendship groups.

  • Organizations: Corporations, colleges.

  • Social Interactions: Online chats, phone calls.

Social Artifacts

• Defined as products of social beings or their behavior.

Faulty Reasoning about Units of Analysis

• Ecological Fallacy: Incorrectly deducing individual characteristics from group data.

• Reductionism: Restricting relevant concepts to genetic factors only (as in sociobiology).

The Time Dimension

Cross-Sectional Studies

• Observations represent a single point in time.

Longitudinal Studies

• Collect data at various points in time:

  • Trend Study: Monitors a characteristic over time.

  • Cohort Study: Studies a specific subpopulation over time.

  • Panel Study: Repeatedly collects data from the same people over time.

Examples of Research Strategies

• Choose between Exploration, Description, or Explanation.

• Identify data sources.

• Define your unit of analysis.

• Consider relevant time dimensions.

How to Design a Research Project

1. Define project purpose (exploratory, descriptive, explanatory).

2. Specify meanings of concepts.

3. Choose a research method.

4. Measure your results.

5. Determine whom or what to study.

6. Collect empirical data.

7. Process the data.

8. Analyze the data.

9. Report findings.

The Research Proposal

Key Elements

1. Problem or Objective

2. Literature Review

3. Subjects for Study

4. Measurement

5. Data Collection Methods

6. Analysis

7. Schedule

8. Budget

9. Institutional Review Board