Psychology Cram Packet

"Unit Zero” - Research Design Basic Vocabulary: Ο Double-Blind: Exp. where neither the pyalue: participant or the experimenter are aware reсxna of which condition people are assigned to (drug studies) Single-Blind: only participant blind - used if experimenter can't be blind (gender, age, etc) probabillly of obxuiningO exp.manipulation caused the difference in means p<.05=stat sig, smaller = hetter EFFECT SIZE=data has practicalsignificance - bigger = better benericenжe, respectijusiice ETHICAL GUIDELINES (IRB APPROVAL NEEDED FOR PPL) o Confidentiality: names kept secret Hypothesis - tentative explanation - must be FALSIFIABLE-able to be supported Ο resultsar ceareme Elhisal principle or mor or rejected lest able predicrion, based reliable data Cfor validiry) on a Operational Definition: clear, precise, heury quantifiable definition of your variablesallows replication and collection of ☆ exireme Ο Confound: error/ flaw in study that is accidentally introduced (can be called a confounding variable) (shark vs. cecream phan tио observed dala Qualitative data: descriptive data (eye color) on Quantitative data: numerical data - IDEAL quiz and necessary for statistics Population - everyone the research could apply to (all thosc in a group being siudied) Sample - the people(or person) specifically chosen for your study "predict" what) shaiks (group) Research Designs • CORRELATION: identify relationship between two variables (can ure one ranabе 10 predict the other) Adv: useful when experiments are unethical Disady: CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION jce cre9т fales Directionality problem - which direction does the correlation go? (depression cause low self-esteem, low self-esteem causes depression, or a 3rd variable?) 3rd variable problem diff. variable is responsible for relationship (ice cream and murder) (confounding rariable) o Positive Correlation - variables increase↑ & decrease together T ort Ο no correlarog =no elarnship Ο Negative Correlation - as one variable ↑ increases the other decreases The stronger the # the stronger the relationship REGARDLESS of the pos/neg sign. Cannot be < or > than 1. Stronger relationships = tighter clusters on graph Strong EXPERIMENTS: purposefully "cause" manipulate variables to determine cause /effect Cusually manipulateindependen) var) Adv: only type that establishes cause and effect Disadv: can be unethical, too artificial o Independent Variable: purposefully (manipulak) Ο Ο weak Random Assignment: assigns participants to either control or sales siudy) experimental group at random –increase chance of cequal representation among groups (spreads the lefties across both groups) - allows you to say Cause / Effect dexi slanford prison experiment) OTHER STUDY TYPES NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION: observe ppl in their natural settings Adv: real world validityl -researcher doeS Disady: No cause and effect noi manipulale silualion CASE STUDY: Studies ONE person in great detail (orcan be of (usually) in great group Adv: - collect lots of info pcopla) Disadv: No cause/effect META-ANALYSIS: combines multiple studies to increase sample size and examine effect sizes Review his STATISTICS Descriptive stats: show shape of the data 0 Measures of Central Tendency: Mean Medan Mode (0) Normal (no sarw) ☆ Bimodal Mean: onguiz 이 Ο Informed Consent: must agree to be part of study Informed assent - minors AND their parents must agree o Debriefing: must be told the true purpose of the study (done after for deception) Ο Ο Deception must be warranted No harm- mental/physical compensariun fur injury Additional Vocabulary: Surveys: usually turned into correlation. Subject to self report bias - errors when collect surve data due to: Ο Social desirability - ppl lie to look good Wording effects - how you frame the question can impact your answers (has shem) Random Sample (selection): method for choosing participants for your study everyone has a chance to take part, ↑increases generalizability Likert scale: mean, median, mode add all ye Average (use in normal distribution) Median: #(use in skewed distribution) Mode: occurs most often Middle 234 Bimodal - has two modes - usually indicates good bad Frequency 5 thn fo 时 • Representative Sample: Sample mimics the general pop. (ethnic, gender, age) Convenience Sample: select participants on availability - less representative and less generalizability this way Sampling bias - sample isn't representative, due to conv. sampling quiz Positive corretation Negative correlation No correlation no re one var both Ton Mode か Medan scores Skews-created by outliers Ο Neg skew=mean is (a) Negatvety Shewed altered by researcher to look for effect on dependont to the left (neg side), variable Experimental Group: received the treatment (part of the IV); can have multiple exp, groups (group w independeni . Control Group: placebo, baselinebс) (part of the IV); can only have 1 dont recieve Dependent Variable: measured variable (is DEPENDENT on the independent variable) Vocab unique to experiments: Ο treaiment mode is to the right Pos Hean skew=mean is to the right Measure of variation Range - distance bw smallest and biggest# Standard deviation 11 Cultural norms - behaviors of a particular group can influence research results Ο avg, amount the Ο Confirmation bias – find info that - scores are spread from the mean (bigger #= more spread) 이 Experimenter bias / Participant bias: experimenter/participant expectations influences the outcome Cognitive bias- bias in thinking/judgmentsupports our preexisting beliefs Hindsight bias - "I knew it all along" Overconfidence - overestimate our knowledge / abilities Ο Placebo Effect: any observed effect on a behv. That is "caused" by the placebo (shows effectiveness of exp. Treatment). Usually fixed w/ blinded studies . INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: establishes significance (meaningfulness) 0 STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE Ο Hawthorne effect - ppl change behavior when watched = results not due to chanceude Research needs peer review and adequate nor rly having any treaimeni but responding ON like thae is QU12: calculate mean, median, mode sample sizes (credibililty and validiny) → blind"procedures Randam selection covne before rendam assighment 文 ☆ myclin sheath weadon Biological Basis Pillar *NT = neurotransmitter, AP = action potential, NS = nervous system HEREDITY VS ENVIRONMENT Evolutionary psycs-study how natural selection influences behavior Heredity (nature) = how genes influence your behavior Environment (nurture) = how outside situations influence your behavior (school) NATURE VS. NURTURE: ANSWER o Twin / Adoption Studies: Neurons Fire w/ an Action Potential: ions move across membrane sends an electrical charge down the axon Ο Resting potential: neuron maintains a -70mv charge when not doing anything o Depolarization: charge of neuron briefly switches from neg to pos. — triggers the AP o Threshold of depolarization: stimulus strength must reach this point to start the AP(level of stmulalion reguired) oAll ☆。 or nothing principle: stimulus (Am) enog الأم DArolarization Rrolacteatim • PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS: Ω Ο (alcohol) acrivity Stimulants: Increase NS activity (caffeine & cocaine) o Hallucinogens: hallucinations and altered perceptions (Marijuana) o Opioids: relieve pain (endorphin agonists) (heroin) Q_Tolerance: Needing more of a drug toachieve the same effects Addiction: must have it to avoid withdrawal symptoms Withdrawal: symptoms associated with sudden stoppage THE BRAIN o Cerebellum - movement, balance, auionomc Resting stn inrcased must trigger Shmulus the AP past Actions potential +10 dbes no its threshold, IS BOTH imzase the Ap but does not iniensily increase the o Genetics: identical twin will have a higher percentage of also developing a disease (fries oт intensity or 3s Frikod imitistiond docsn' o Environment: identical twins raised in different environments show differences fire) speed of the noion Stkes porchria) responset respone (flush the toilet) Life Refractory period: neuron must rest and reset before it can send another functun thar AP (toilet resets) aLon pumps tions back NERVOUS SYSTEM norre ancan .CENTRAL NS: Brain and spinal cord in bone body's • PERIPHERAL NS: Rest of the NS - Central NSneres nos encasxа descisiun malaker relays to in bune o Somatic NS: Voluntary movement, has aliun sensory and motor neurons, tommunica and frum rense Autonomic NS: Involuntary organs organs (heart, lungs, etc) - contains the: Sympathetic NS: fight/flight (generallye activates - exception digestion),Physicany Parasympathetic NS: rest/digest (generally inhibits - exception 40 arouses the body 0 NEUROTRANSMITTERS (NT): Chemicals released in synaptic gap, received by neurons. Classified as Refrador peril mgt basic (walking a tightrope balancing a bell) o Brainstem / Medulla -vital organs (HR, ↑ BP, breathing)tode part,Foundarам( o Reticular activating system: alertness, arousal, sleep, eye movement Focus atiention오 keep us alive ou1 ofmembrane) excitatory (increase APs in other neurons) or inhibitory Ο 0 stress ful simations expendins cnersyO digestion) - calms body, returns budy to homcostasis, NEURON AND NEURAL FIRING srimulaks digestion NuceuS Dencrte Soma Axon larnnal (orllbody] Spieds tranumissiun ncuiah impulses Acn Dizection sdecireal impie travet • NEURON: Basic cell of the NS Cnerve cell) -Alzhcimers -mulnple sclerois 文 文 Ο Ο Ο lewning musle Contraltion Dendrites: Receive incoming NIS trum other cals) Axon: AP travels down this, A miss from cell bid 0 Myelin Sheath: speeds up AP down axon, protects axon, spteds tiansimission of Ο mutur toneuruns neural ,mpulses Synapse: gap b/w neurons (wn the action) SENSORY neurons -receive sense (selrecepiw)0 signals from environ.-send signal to braincoNs) MOTOR neurons – signals to move - send signals from brain CNS &PNS & mulles Interneurons – cells in spinal cord /brain responsible for reflex arc Conly in (NS) mesiinge beiween sensory & mоем o Reflex arc – important stimuli skipsnew •prass motor ropunic winlernEMOnS -1urn • the brain and routes through the spinal cord for immediate reactions 4 Spine (hand on a hot flame)-prutoct haim budy from GLIA - support cells - give nutrients and clean up around neurons Ω Ο Ο Ο (decrease APs) Cerebral Cortex: outer portion of the brain - higher order thought processes - includes limbic system, lobes, corpus callosum o Limbic System: mememury, emunoni, monvated bzhariur fisutu- Amygdala: emotions, fear (basic emonons) Flighi GABA: Major inhibitory NT defeuir:scizure), insomnia,huntngrons disxac Glutamate: Major excitatory NT (glutes excite you!),balis of learning, shmulares nypuihalamus Dopamine: Reward (short term) & fine movement - in hypothalamus, deferil assoc. w/addiction, Aleness, allannon Packiniun's Serotonin: Moods (long-term), emotion, sleep Excess: shizophrenia -in amygdala, too little assoc. w/ depressionee»: OLO/munia Acetylcholine (ACh): Memory and movement -in hippocampus, assoc. w/ Alzheimer's - defeut scurime poicining Norepinephrine: sympathetic NS - too little assoc. w/ depression Endorphins: decrease pain K no alarinesı, arouxal, haut rak, circuloñon, moal alevation Substance Pa pain regulation, sress reducion,pleasue, (abnormality increases pain and "nutural opiaics" deficil addichon inflammation)- fuand in brain and spinal cord HORMONES: if not in the nervous system, it's a hormone Cendocnne sysiem) Oxytocin: love, bonding, childbirth, lactation (анакитent) Hippocampus: episodic and semantic memory (if you saw a hippo on elps proccuelplicit mms campus you'd remember it!) fog Hypothalamus: Reward/pleasureemo OUWLral center, eating behaviors - link to (прин endocrine system, homeostasisbody tome Thalamus: relay center for all but smell Creacvel szniory sisnals from spinal coul, sends te forebruin partг( Pituitary gland: talks w/ endocrine sys and hypothalamus – release hormones Frontol Lobs Temporal Lobe 3rcinsto Ο Occipital Lobe: vision Ω Adrenaline: fight/flight (piers musles for excitun) oLeptin: makes you full (stops hunger) o Ghrelin: makes you hungry (turns you Ω into a gremlin) Melatonin:, sleepy Fanetal Lobe Occipilal Lobe Cerebelm Frontal Lobe: decision making, planning, judgment, movement, (personality, language, executive function - includes the: (ex: addiciun, withdmemil) Agonist: drug that mimics a NT /blocks reupiake Antagonist: drug that blocks a NT texibutox) Ο Reuptake: Unused NTs are taken back upereabarbed into the sending neuron.(antidepressants cause reuptake inhibition (block reuptake) treatment for depression Prefrontal cortex: front of frontal lobe -executive function • Motor Cortex: back of frontal lobe - map of our motor receptors - controls skeletal movement Parietal Lobe; sensations and touch - incudes: controls association areas - Somatosensory Cortex: map of our touch receptors Temporal Lobe: hearing and face recognition, language prospagnia -inabilıty to remembar faces Absolute Threshold detection of signal 50% of time (is it there) Just noticeable difference: can tell the ampichinsiun allon areas reccive input from multiple areas / lobes to integrate info Left hemisphere only - damage to these results in aphasia (damaged speech) Broca's Area: Inability to produce speech (Broca - Broken speech) • Wernicke's Area: can't comprehend SLEEP Consciousness - awareness of cognitive Sensation - receive stimulus energy from environment processes (asleep or awake?) Circadian Rhythms: 24ish hour Transduction- convert that info into APs biological clock of Body temp & sleep Perception - brain interprets the info -r mottic4& e2a01 -oalspcrityCorpus Callosum: bundle of nerves that connects the 2 hemispheres speech (Wernicke's what?) clers temnaral o Disrupting it makes your internal clock get out of sync (jet lag and shift work do this) • Cre Cyo Cycio Cyclo & Cуto Cxplairs pln braih reJeach sometimes severed in patients with severe seizures - leads to "split-brain patients" Awake -REM sleep Non-REM stage 1 Non-REM stage 2 Split-brain experiments: Non-REM stage 3 (formerly wiage 3&4) Image shown to R eve processed in L hemi - patient can say what they saw; image shown to L eye processed in R hemi, can't say what was seen 11pm 12pm 1am 2am 3am 4am Sarn Barn 7am What do yOU What do you see? I see e bail. 1 see nothing. • BRAIN PLASTICITY: Brain changes via damage and through experience ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: sends hormones throughout the body o Pituitary Gland: Controlled by hypothalamus. release growth hormones BRAIN RESEARCH: o EEG: shows broad brain activity - not specific - electrical output o fMRI: show brain activity in specific regions, measures oxygen Lesion - destruction of brain tissuedeswoyed, takon away in capelivknls DISEASES & DISORDERS TO KNOW Multiple sclerosis: destruction of myelin sheath, disrupts APs, causes impaired mobility, paralysis, pain Myasthenia gravis: acetylcholine blocked, disrupts APs, causes poor motor control and paralysis Blindsight: caused by lesions to primary visual cortex, ppl can""see" ie catch a ball etc despite being blind - evidence for association areas hocais & Aphssa Prosopagnosia: face blindness to occipital and/or temporal lobe damage Broca's aphasia - damage to Broca's area - stuttered speech Wernicke's aphasia - damage to Wernicke's - jumbled speech Phantom limb pain - pain from a limb that no longer is there (amputated) caused by brain plasticity Epilepsy - seizures - too much / little Glutamate / GAВА Alzheimer's - destruction of acetylcholine in hippocampus, memory loss this whore OLeues is Beta Waves: awake (you betta be awake for the exam) Alpha Waves; high amp., drowsy NREM (non REM) stagesNREM 1: light sleep, has hypnagogic sensations (falling feeling) NREM 2: bursts of sleep spindles NREM 3 Delta waves: Deep sleep Rapid Eye Movement (REM); ›dreaming, cognitive processing Entire cycle takes 90 minutes, REM occurs inb/w each cycle. REM lasts longer throughout the night, deep sleep decreases REM isśparadoxical" bc your HR and brain is active - but your body is relaxed REM Rebound: after sleep disruptions and/or lack of REM sleep you'll have more / more intense REM sleep DREAM THEORIES: Activation Synthesis: Brain produces random bursts of energy - stimulating lodged memories in limbic sys & brain stem. Dreams start random then develop meaning. Its Neural theory. Consolidation dream theory: brain is combining and processing memories for storage WHY IS SLEEP NECESSARY Consolidation - storage of memories Restoration - helps regenerate the immune system and restore energy • SLEEP DISORDERS o Insomnia: Inability to fall/ stay asleep (due to stress/anxiety) Ο Somnambulism (sleep walking) - happens during stage 3 - NOT during REM o Narcolepsy: fall into REM out of nowhere - treated w/ stimulants o Sleep Apnea: stop breathing while asleep (due to obesity usually) • REM behavior disorder: malfunction of mechanism that paralyze you during REM SENSATION Intro Vocab difference b/w a stronger and weaker stimulus or two similar things (coke vs pepsi, did it get stronger?) WEBER'S LAW: two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum proportion.(the stronger thing, the more you have to add to tell the difference) Synesthesia: "disorder" where your senses blend (see sounds, etc) Sensory Adaptation: diminished sensitivity as a result of constant stimulation (ex. nose blindness)- sensory receptors respond less (get tired) VISUAL SYSTEM: •Lens- focuses light on retina Retina - contains photoreceptors (rods/cones/ ganglion cells) Fovea-area of best vision(cones here) Rods - black/white, dark adaptation; way more rods than cones; located alongsides of retina Cones - color, bright light (red, green, blue)(only in the fovea) Ganglion cells - create optic nerve (opponent process theory happens here)• Blind spot - occurs where the optic nerve leaves the eye Cornea Retina Pupil -Lens Iris Nerve VISUAL SYSTEM VOCAВ: Accommodation:lens changes curvature to focus images on retina Nearsightedness- better vision near Farsightedness - better vision far THEORIES OF COLOR VISION: Trichromatic - three cones for receiving color Blue-short waves Green-medium Red - long waves waves •Opponent Process - complementary colors are processed in ganglion cells - explains why we see an after image Red/green Blue/yellow Black/white Color deficiency: Damage to, or missing cones or ganglion cells M e Red/green is most common Dichromatism - missing 1 cone Monochromatism - only have rods AUDITORY SYSTEM: Properties of Sound: Wavelength - distance bw peaks - pitch Long waves = low pitch Narrow waves = high pitch Amplitude - height of wave - loudness Short waves = soft Tall waves = loud - Wavedereth - Ampitude • THEORIES OF HEARING: all occur in the cochlea •Place theory - location where hair cells bends determines sound (high pitches) •_Frequency theory- rate at which action potentials are sent determines sound (low pitches) •Volley theory -groups of neurons fire APs out of sync Pinna Stirrup Anvil Hammer Ear Drum Semicircular Canals Cochiea Auditory Canal Outer Ear Middle Ear Irner Ear Other Hearing Stuff: Auditory Nerve Sound Tocalization-which ear gets the waves first tells location of sound Conduction deafness- damage to bones of ear and ear drum cause hearing loss Sensorineural - damge to cochlea, hairs in cochlea, or nerve - usually due to old age and loud noise OTHER SENSES: Vestibular: Sense of balance (semicircular canals in the inner ear) Kinesthetic: Sense of body position & movement wo looking Pain: Gate-control theory: we have a "gate" to control how much pain is experience. Pain is both mental and physical "Hot": activation of warm and cold receptors Taste (gustation); 6 taste receptors: bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami (savory), olcogustus (fatty/oily) • Tongue, mouth, and brain process taste Density of taste receptors makes ppl super tasters, medium tasters, or nontasters • Sensory interaction creates taste- wo smell taste isn't as strong or is absent •Smell (olfaction): Only sense that does NOT route through the thalamus Pheromones produce chemical signals w/in a species for attraction Cognition Pillar PERCEPTION Top-Down Processing: Whole idea (prior expectations) smaller parts (painting w/ faces) Bottom-Up Processing: Smaller Parts (sensory info) Whole idea (dog of bunch of dots) Schemas: preexisting mental concept of how something should look (like a restaurant) • Perceptual Set: tendency to see something as part of a group - speeds up signal processing ACDEF 10 || 1214 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY: Whole is greater than the sum of its parts Gestalt Principles: Figure/ground: organize information into figures objects (figures) that stand apart from surrounds (back ground) Closure: mentally fill in gaps Proximity: group things together that appear near each other • Similarity: group things together based off of looks Constancies: recognize that objects do not physically change despite changes in sensory input (size, shape, brightness) Apparent Movement: objects can appear moving when they aren't (flip books, on o can Fia/nd blinking lights) Selective Retinal Disparity: Image is cast slig. different on each retina, location of image helps us determine depth Convergence: Eyes strain more (looking inward) as objects draw nearer MONOCULAR DEPTH CUES (how 3D image from a 2D image) we form a 3D imagе Interposition: overlapping images appear closer •Relative Size: 2 objects that are usually similar in size, the smaller one is further away Linear Perspective parallel lines converge with distance (think railroad tracks) Relative Clarity: hazy objects appear further away • Texture Gradienti coarser objects-closer THINKING & PROBLEM SOLVING Concepts: mental categories used to group objects, events, characteristics •Prototypes: all instances of a concept are compared to an ideal example Algorithms: step by step strategies that guarantee a solution (formula) Heuristics: short cut strategy Representative Heuristic:make judgment based on your/experience (like a stereotype) - assume someone must be a librarian b/c they're quiet 0 Availability heuristic:_make a judgement based on the first thing that pops in your head (assume planes are dangerous b/c crash in the news) •_Metacognition: thinking about (reflecting upon) the way you think attention: focus out other things - 3 ness: failure to ded b/c you're so focused on another task (gorilla video) Change Blindness: fail to notice a change in the scene (curtain changes color) •Cocktail party effects notice your name across the room when its spoken, when you weren't previously paying attention BINOCULAR DEPTH CUES: (how both eyes make up a 3D image) D A Proximity ------ B. Similarity C. Continaity D. Closure 1 •Mental Set - keep using one strategy to solve a problem - cannot think outside the box •_Functional Fixedness: can only see one (common) use for an item- cannot think outside of the box Sunk Cost fallacy - çontinue something be you're already invested (might as well finish it now...) - when stopping would be more beneficial believe is Gambler's Fallacy - more likely something to happen bc its "due"- the dice have no memory Divergent thinking: ability to think about many different things hindered by at once (Creative) func. fixedness Convergent thinking: limits creativity - onc answer Executive functioning._generating, organizing, planning, carrying directed behvs out goal MEMORY ENCODING: Getting Automatic info into memory encoding - requires no effort (what did you have for breakfast?) Effortful encoding-requires work (school) • Levels (depth) of Processing the more emphasis on MEANING the deeper the processing, and the better remembered Structural encoding (shallow) emphasis on physical structural o Phonemic encoding (intermediate) emphasis on what words sound like o Semantic encoding (deep) = emphasis on. meaning of the words • Elaborative Rehearsal - strategies to enhance encoding like below: 이 이 Imagery - attaching images to information makes it easier to remember Dual encoding - using multiple methods of processing to remember (photo +words) Chunking-break info into smaller units to aid in memory (like a phone #) o Mnemonics - shortcuts to help us remember info easier Π . Acronyms- using letter to remember something (PEMDAS) Method of loci - using locations to remember a list of items in order • Context dependent memorywhere you learn the info you best remember the info (scuba divers testing) 이 State dependent memory - the physical state you were in when learning is the way you should be when testing (study high, test high) •_Mood congruent memory-remember happy events when happy, sad when sad •Forgetting curve: recall decreases rapidly at first, then reaches a plateau after which little more is forgotten • Multi-Store Model -Sensory short memory, term memory, model long term memory Sensory Memory stores all incoming stimuli that you receive (first you have to a pay attention) o Iconic Memory - visual memory, lasts 0.3 seconds o Echoic Memory - auditory memory, lasts 2-3 seconds Short Term Memory - info passes Eavrosmet Attetion Reheral Sensory Short-ter memory Longterm Bemry tmemery Retrieval Rehearal Pexall Ο ودما from sensory memory to STM - lasts 30 secs, and can remember 7± 2 items o Maintenance Rehearsal (repeating the info) resets the clock Long term memory - lasts a life time Explicit- require conscious effort: Π Episodic: events Semantic: facts o Implicit- automatic, no effort needed: • Classical conditioning Priming: info that is seen earlier "primes" you to remember something later on • Procedural: skills (muscle memory) • Working Memory Model splits STM into 2 visual spatial memory (from iconic mem) and phonological loop (from echoic mem). A "central executive" puts it together before passing it to LTM Other odd types of memory Prospective memorvremembering you need to do something (pick up milk) Autobiographical memory? memory for your personal history combo of episodic and semantic Vineepatial Skeichpad oHlerarchhies: memory is stored according to a clusters of related inf Categori oSemantie cally- stored in categories networks: webs of semi-rela ted info Tip of the tongue phenomenon- can't remember the name of someth ing bs you're stuck elsewhere in your semantic network o Schemas-frameworks that organize info. Assimilation: incorporate new inf into existing schema Cat is a dog b/c 4 legs. Accom modation: adjust existing schemas to incorporate new 'information Cat and dogs = different. Memory storage ΟΠherAcetylcholine neurons in the hippocampus for episodic and semantic pok•Memories before age 3 are unreliable (infantile amnesia) - hippocampus still forming meCerebellum for implicít/ procedural memories 1 for•Amygdala for emotional memories Frontal lobe for encoding and retrieval •_Long-term potentiation: neural basis of memory -connections are strengthened over time with repeated stimulation (more firing of neurons) Memory consolidation-memories are strengthened and made more stable witl time RETRIEVAL: Taking info out of storag •Serial Position Effect: tendency to remember the beginning (primacy effect) and the end (recency effect) of the list bes o Primacy happens bc the info got moved to long term memory o_Recency be its still in your short ten •Recall: remember what you've been told w/o.cues (essays) •Recognition: remember what you've bee told w/ cues (MCQ) (this one is better) imicse) ipantsanding elatlon n searchAlrafios Repressed memories: Sempory Cratral Iapai LTM Eeecativs unconsciously buried memories to defend the ego (psychodynamic approach) bias: tions Vorgatisn es Forgaties • Encoding failure: forget info b/c you never encoded it (paid attention to it) in first place (which is the real penny) t Distributed practice (spacing effect) - review a little every night (resets forgetting curve) Massed practice- cramming • Testing effect-quizzing over material periodically STORAGE: Retaining info over time s 4 Elagrad iбayz! oSuperior autobiographical - raré condition - ppl have extra aré'co detailed memories • Memory organization Coustructive memory-the way we update memories w/new memories, associations, feelings -memory is unreliable judgmeo that ets all alonglate ournge d adequailidity) Source Amnesia: forget who told you, where you heard it Misinformation effect: distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation (lost in the mall, Disney land) Framing-the way a question is framed impacts how info is recalled /perceived (how fast were the cars going when they smashed) Imagination Inflation: ppl are more confident an event happened after imagining it (even though it didn't happen) •Anterograde amnesia: amnesia moves forward (forget new info - 50 first dates) Retrograde amnesia:_amnesia moves backwards (forget old info) INTELLIGENCE & ACHIEVEMENT Intelligence theories are split: Single form of intelligence (g factor) - general intelligence (g) underlies all mental abilities (typical IQ tests of today). If you're smart in one area you're smart in other areas too Multiple intelligences -intelligence has lots of types, not just math/language. Can be high/low in areas First IQ Test: used a formula and is where the traditional value of "IQ" comes from mental age X 100 1Q = chronological age •Chronological age = actual age Mental age= tested age compared to other of that age 100 is average, SD =15 Use for IQ scores /tests today: educational services, diagnostic testing for learning disabilities, GT identification • Psychometrics - field of psych & education for creating tests Standardization: test is given using consistent procedures and environments, and graded the same (SAT, AP exams) •Tests Should be reéliable: same results over time (consistent) •_Split-halfreliability: compare two halyes of the test Test-retest reliability: use the same test on 2 different occasions Tests Should be valid: test is accurate - measures what it is intended to Standard dev are used to compare scores. Standard deviation measures how much the scores vary from the mean. Percentages below NEVER change. Types of Tests: Aptitude: predicts your abilities to learn About ninety-live percent ofalt people fall within 30 points of 100 68% Slaty elght percent of people score within 15 points abave or below 100 0.1% 0.1% 2% 135% 34% 34% 135% 2% 55 70 85 100 115 130 145 skill Wechsler Intelligence score a new (ASVAB) Achievement: tests what you know(AP) Historical Issues with Intelligence Testing Nature vs Nurture Influence on IO: Genetics: MZ twins have similar IQ, adopted kids more similar to biological parents •Environment: early neglect leads to lower IQ, good schooling to higher IQ •_Personal and sociocultural biases impact interpretation of results •_Poverty and education inequalities neg. impact scores Eugenics - study of how to "improve" the gene pool by discouraging (sterilizing or otherwise) individuals from reproducing Culture fair tests - IQ tests have been used to refuse / limit access to jobs, military, education, and immigration Need to focus on non-language skills & minimize cultural specific questions • Stereotype threat: feel at risk of conforming to the neg. stereotype about your group- influences your behaviors, cognitions Stereotype lift - do better on a test when comparing self to other groups w/neg stereotypes • FLYNN effect: IQ has steadily risen over the past 80 years - probably due to education standards, healthcare • Fixed Mindset: belief intelligence is fixed 'from birth - leads to less effort Growth mindset: belief you can develop abilities through work and determinationleads to more effort Development and Learning Pillar Construct validity: test measures what you want it to (an IQ test actually measures IQ Predictive validity: test is able to accuratély predict a trait (high math scores predicts good engineer) •Standardized tests establish a normal distribution 1. Nature / Nurture (genes or environment) DEVELOPMENT "3 thematic issues" in Dev. Psych: Ο 2. Continuous /Discontinuous (gradual over time or dev. In stage) 3. Stability/ Change (traits persist, 이 unchanging or traits change as we age) CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY: ppl of different ages at the same point in time Adv: inexpensive & quick 이 o Disadv: can be differences due to generational gap O LONGITUDINAL STUDY: studies same ppl over time o Adv: eliminates groups (cohort) differences, lots of detail o Disadv: expënsive, time consuming, highdrop out rates PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT • Prenatal Development: o Teratogens: éxternal agents that can cause abnormal prenatal development (alcohol, drugs, etc) o Illness, mutations, hormones, and environment can impact prenatal dev Physical Development: Maturation: natural course of 0 development, occurs no matter what (walking) o Gross movement: large muscles, strength and coordination (walking) - develops first o Fine movement: small muscles, precision and controlled (writing) o Reflexes: innate responses we're born w/ - that go away w/ time Rooting - turning of face towards a finger when touched on the cheek (food response Other reflexes include - sucking, swallowing, grasping, Moro (startle), stepping, Babinski (toes spread when foot touched) o Eyes have the most limited development, takes till 1 year Visual cliff: babies have to learn depth perception, so they will cross a "cliff" Critical period (sensitive period) - limited time where something HAS to be developed or it won't happen (language for humans) Imprinting: birds believe the first thing they see after hatching is mom Adolescent growth spurt - rapid skeletal and muscular dev. o Frontal lobe continuous dev (not fully developed till 25) 이 Adulthood - the following level off and then decline: Mobility, flexibility, reaction time, visual /auditory acuity, fertility COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT • JEAN PIAGET'S COGNITIVE Schemas DEV. -frameworks that organize Assimilation: info incorporate new info into schema Cat is a dog b/c 4 existing Accommodation: legs. adjust existing schemas to incorporate new information Cat and dogs = different. Sensorimotor focused Stage: Birth to 2 years: on exploring their world o Lack (and gain) Object Permanence: Objects when removed are from field of view thought to disappear (peek-a-boo) Pre-operational Stage: 2-7 years: use pretend play and mental symbols o Lack Ο Conservation: recognize that substances remain the same despite changes in shape, length, or position (girls with juice in glasses) Lack Reversibility: cannot do reverse operations (count out both 4+2 and 2+4) o Are egocentric: inability to distinguish one's own perspective from another's - • think everyone sees what they see o Lack (and start developing) theory of mind: people's beliefs, intentions, emotions are their own o Use animism: believe artificial objects have thoughts / feelings Concrete Operational Stage: 7-11 yrs: use operational thinking, classification, and can think logical in concrete context Formal Operational Stage: 11-15 yrs: use abstract and idealist thoughts, hypothetical-deductive reasoning Problems with Piaget's theoryv: discrete, dev. differs b/w kids stages too VYGOTSKY’S THEORY: cognitive development is a social process too, need to interact w/ others o Zone of Proximal Development: gap b/w what a child can do on their own and Zone of Proximal Development B ZPD A: Stuff learners can do. A ZPD: Stulf learnere eAn do. with support. B Stuff learners can'? do leven with support). w/ support. Need scaffolding (teachers) o Crystallized intelligence: fact and prior learning/ experiences - increases w/ age o Fluid intelligence: ability to learn new things, reaction times, abstract thinking & quick problem solving - decreases w/age o Dementia; loss of cognitive function - results in emotional and behavioral changes - ex. Alzheimer's LANGUAGE Language: operate shared system of symbols that by rules and is infinite Phonemes: smallest sound unit of sound (ch in chat) Morpheme: smallest unit that caries meaning (-ed means past tense) Grammar: us rules in a language that enable to communicate Semantics: set of rules by which we derive meaning (adding-ed makes something past tense) Syntax: rules for combining words into sentences (white house vs casa blanca) • Cooing stage: produces vowels sounds • Babbling stage: start to create phonemes w/ constants One-word stage: used to try and communicate wants • Telegraphic speech (two word stage): further communication •Overregularization:_grammar mistake- children over use certain morphemes (I go-ed to the park) Ο SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT Temperament: patterns of emotional reactions in babies - impacts attachment o Easy, difficult, slow to warm up o “Monkey experiments": discovered that contact comfort is more important than feeding (monkeys fed on wire or cloth mothers). Monkeys raised in isolation couldn't socialize Ο 0 Attachment: strange situation paradigm (children left alone in a room w/ a stranger, then reunited w/ mom - determines your attachment style Utilizes idea of separation anxiety: during late sensorimotor stage kids are fearful of ppl they don't know or being left alone Ο Ο Ο Secure attachment (60% of infants): upset when mom leaves, easily calmed on return. Tend to be more stable adults Avoidant insecure (20% infants): actively avoids mom, doesn't care when she leaves - adults have distant relationships and fail to communicate Anxious insecure (10% infants): actively avoids mom, freaks out when she leaves - jealous relationships and clingy o Disorganized insecure(5%): confused, fearful, dazed - result of abuse 이 Parenting styles- influenced by culture Ο Authoritarian: rules & obedience, "my way or the highway" -kids lack initiative in college, low self-esteem o Permissive: kids do whatever - no rules kids lack initiative in college - high self-esteem 0 이 Ο 이 Authoritative: give and take w/ kids- kids become socially competent and reliable - best type - high self-esteem and initiative Peer relationships w/ time Children engage w/ play • Parallel play - play side by side w/o interacting - turns into pretend play Adolescents rely on peers • Imaginary audience: believe others are constantly watching them (related to egocentrism) • Turns into Personal fable - belief you . are special / unique / invincible Adulthood - culture impacts when major life events should occur - some allow a transition bw adolescence and adulthood Social clock - shared (cultural) expectation of age-appropriate behavior (when to get married, have kids, etc) o Gender roles: expected behaviors (norms) for men/women due to cultural influence o ERIKSON'S SOCIOEMOTINAL DEV. : r on.nen okne for each stage represents a crisis that must be resolved, results in competence or weakness nics o Trust vs Mistrust (birth - 18 months): if:) needs are met infants dev basic trust o Autonomy vs shame&doubt (1-3 yrs): learn to exercise their will (I WANT TO DO IT - pours milk) 이 Ο Initiative vs guilt (3-6 yrs): learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, also be creative (WHY kid) Industry vs inferiority (6 yrs to puberty): learn what you're good or accomplished at (school/ sports success) o Identity vs role confusion: (adolescence thru 20s): refine a sense of self by testing roles and forming an identity Ο Intimacy vs isolation: (20s-40s): form close relationships and gain capacity for love o Generativity vs stagnation: (40s-60s): discover sense of contributing to the world, thru family & work o Integrity vs despair: (60s and up): reflect on your life, feel satisfaction or failure o MARCIA’S IDENTITY THEORY: Yes Individua! has explored identity options No Individual has committed to identity Yes Identity Achievement pants and ig ation no vebasin earch bias: ions udgmenti that fs ll along" ite our ge No adequate Morntorium diny) Foreclosure Identity Diffusion Diftusion: no commitment, no exploration, no idea who they are (no idea of a major - not even thinking on it) Foreclosures premature commitment w/ no exploration (I'll be a lawyer be my parents say so) e Moratorium: actively secking an identity, no commitment though (trying lots of clubs to see what sticks) Identity Achievement: committed sense of self, desire to accomplish and contribute (picked a major after caretul consideration) LINCommitmert Low Exploration Forclosure: "IVe made a choce withoutthinking Identity Diin dont тря алdon'tcare what n supposed to de wah AV Hoh kdentity Achelvement: thought aboutit and ! nowknowwhat I shouid do with my hle." Moratorium: "Im thinking about what I should do" Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACES): stressful/ traumatic events during childhood- impact relationships and health o Abuse, divorce, mental illness ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY: o Microsystem-immediate environment w/ daily interaction (family, friends, teachers) o Mesosystem-relationships bw 0 microsystem (interaction bw parents and teachers/school) Exosystem-environment you're not directly a part of that still impacts you (government policies, parent's job) o Macrosystem - societal and cultural 0 influences (customs, norms, traditions) Chronosystem-life stage and historical events (economic recession, environmental changes) LEARNING Behaviorist perspective is focused on learning - (change in behy through experience). Measures observable behv, and usually ignores the mind CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: explains involuntary behys and emotions Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): causes response w/o needing to be learned (food) Q_Unconditioned Response (UCR): response that naturally occurs w/o training (salivate) Q_Conditioned Stimulus (CS): thing that now brings about a response (bell) Q_Conditioned Response (CR): response after conditioning, follows a CS (salivate) Q_Contiguity: Timing of the pairing, NS/CS must be presented .5-1 sec BEFORE the US Q_Acquisition: process of learning the response pairing Q_Extinction: previously conditioned response dies out over time Spontaneous Recovery: After a period of time the CR comes back out of nowhere Droys l dre elicded by (S 24-bour 13 Argubition ICS-UCS JNring Exfoction (CS alone) First recovery (CS alone 3 N-hour Second spontancou (CS alone) 0 2 6 10 12 ง 16 18 20 22 2 6 2 8 Diah o_Generalization: CR to like stimuli (similar sounding bell) o_Discrimination: CR to ONLY the CS (only drool to that one bell, no others) o_Higher order conditioning:_when the original CS is paired with 2 thing - and becomes a new CS (drool to squeaky cabinet /can opener) Ο Conditioned taste aversion (one-trial learning)-Innate predispositions can allow classical conditioning to occur in one trial (food poisoning) - due to biological Nacrosystem AN Rxosystem A Pur Nesuaystem Sstom T Nicrosystem ' Indutduel M ه دار مة Chronosistam T d bater preparedness - predisposed to react to dangerous biological threats o Habituation - get used to a regular stimulus and stop responding (startle less to a loud noise w/ time) 0 Emotional conditioning - emotions conditioned in humans (little Albert experiment) lead to behavioral treatments for fear (counterconditioning) OPERANT CONDITIONING: explainsvoluntary behv resulting from consequences O LAW OF EFFECT Behaviors followed by pos. outcomes are strengthened, neg. outcomes weaken a behavior (cat in the puzzle box) PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT COND: Q_Pos. Reinforcement: Add something nice to increase a behavior (gold star for turning in HW) o_Neg. Reinforcement: Take away something bad/annoying to increase a behavior (put on seatbelt to take away annoying car signal) o_Primary Reinforcers: innately satisfying (food and water) o_Secondary Reinforcers: everything else (stickers, high-fives) o_Token Reinforcer: type of secondary- can be exchanged for other stuff (game tokens or money) Pos. Punishment: Add something bad to decrease a behavior (spanking) QNeg. Punishment: Take away something good to decrease a behavior (take away car keys) o_Punishment temporarily changes behv.. doesn't tell you what to do - ineffective o_Operant conditioning extinguishes like classical conditioning o_Shaping: use successive approximations to train behavior (reward closer and closer desired behaviors to teach a response - rat basketball) o Continuous Reinforcement schedule: Receive reward for every response o_Partial Reinforcement schedule:_vary how often the response is given strengthens responses and takes longer to extinguish o_Fixed Ratio schedule: Reward every X number of response (every 10 envelopes stuffed get $S) Fixed Interval schedule: Reward every Х amount of time passed (every 2 weeks get a paycheck) o Variable Ratio schedule: Rewarded after a random number of responses (slot machine QVariable Interval schedule: Rewarded after a random amount of time has passed (BeReal app) Variable schedules are most resistant to extinction (how long will keep playing a slot machine before you think its broken?) ZZHalItrad schedules lead to the Ratio highest your response rates (bc you are in control of reward) QLearned Helplessness - no matter what you do you never get a positive outcome so you just give up (word scrambles, depression models) Instinctive drift - can only teach animals behavior they already do, also will return to original behavior w/ time o Superstitious behaviors – operantly conditioned through partial reinforcement & coincidence - pigeons hopping on one foot to get food consider the situation (that guy cut me off b/c he's a jerk - not that his wife could be in labor) Actor-observer bias: when its others - blame the person, when its you, blame the situation Self-serving bias: self only - our successes are bc we're awesome, our perton I of distinct Primary groups (in-group) Self-serving bias 1 ✓ MISC LEARNING TYPES Actor-observer blas 2 Fundamental attribution error 1 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY learning through observation Modeling Behaviors: Children model (imitate) behaviors. Study used BoBo dolls to demonstrate. The more similar the model is the better you learm. Vicarious conditioning: form of observational learning, watch another get a consequence and learn - don't do that! Latent learning- learning is hidden until useful (rats in maze get reinforced half way through, performance improved Create Cognitive maps - mental representation of an area, allows navigation if blocked (firefighters taught this) QInsight learning- some learning is through simple intuition (chimps with crates to get bananas) - aha! moment Social and Personality Pillar SOCIAL PSYCH how we think about, influence, and relate to others Attributions and Perceptions - • Attributions -how ppl explain behv & mental processes of themselves & others o Dispositional attribution: person's internal qualities -personality o Situational attribution: external circumstances Attribution theory: we explain behaviors by crediting the situation or the person's internal disposition (personality) • Fundamental attribution error: Tendency to blame a person's disposition (personality) and not 이 Other person (out-group) Primary person attributes: Their (primary) success to internal foctors Their (primary) faidures to extermal Jactors Primary person's behavior to extermal Jactors Other person's behavior to intermal factors Otleer person's behavior to internal factars failures are someone else's fault Self-fulfilling prophecy: a belief that leads to its own fulfillment (I expect you all to pass, you know this, you study - fulfilling my prophecy) • Social comparison: we evaluate ourselves based on comparisons to society and social circles Upward comparison - compare to ppl you think are better then you (I want to be like them) Downward comparison – compare to someone you think is worse off than you (at least I don't have it as bad as them) Relative deprivation-judge what we are lacking relative to others • Explanatory Style: how ppl explain gooр and bad events in their lives and others - either optimistic (pos) or pessimistic (neg) External locus of control: chance / outside forces control your fate Internal locus: control your own fate Mere exposure effect: repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them (the more time you spend around something the more you like it) Attitude formation and change: Stereotype: generalized concept about a group (a label) Reduces cognitive load (mental effort) when making decisions Usually the basis of prejudice and discrimination Prejudice: neg. reaction towards a person/group w/o any advance experience w/ that group (a belief/emotion) Discrimination: different treatment of a person/group than how you would treat others (a behavior) Implicit attitudes: unconscious bias -leads to • Ingroup bias: tendency to favor our own group Ethnocentrism: tendency to see your own group as more important than others • Outgroup homogeneity bias: perception that out-group members are similar, while the in-group members arediverse Just-world phenomenon: tendency forppl to believe that the world is just andtherefore ppl get what they deserve (homeless ppl) Belief perseverance- stick to your original belief even when given evidence to disprove it Cognitive dissonance - two opposing thoughts conflict w/each other, causing discomfort (dissonance), which makes us find ways to justify the situation (cult that was going to be abducted by aliens, smokers) Social Situations • Social norms - define expectations & roles for individuals and social situations • Social influence theory -ppls thoughts and actions are influenced by others Normative social influence: we conform to gain approval or to not standout from the group (be part of the norm) Informational social influence: we conform to others b/c we think their opinions must be right (change answers to math hw) Elaboration likelihood model - 2 ways to persuade Central route to persuasion: change people's attitudes through logical arguments and explanations. Leads to long term behavior change Peripheral route to persuasion: change people's attitudes through incidental cues (like a speaker's attractiveness). Can also use emotional appeals. Leads to temporary behavior changes. Use the: Halo effect - overall impression of a person / thing is influenced by a single pos. trait or characteristics Foot in the door phenomenon: complying w/ a small request then leads to going along w/ a larger request (can I have $5? Yes. Now can I have $25?) Door in the face phenomenon: a large request is turned down, when then leads you to be more likely to comply w/ a small request (can I have $100? Heck no! How about $20? Okay) Conformity: change in a person's behv to more closely match the group C classic experiment - showed lines of different lengths, confederates gave wrong answers to see if others would go along w/ it - factors influence conformity: 1. Person is insecure 2. Group has 3 or more ppl 4 t 3. Group is unanimous 4. Person admires group 5. Person has no prior commitment to a response 6. Others observe their behavior 7. Cultural expectations (collectivistic) order • Obedience: complying w/ an or command - classic experiment: participants were to teach" another individual using shocks. ~65% of participants would administer lethal shocks to another person simply b/c they were told - factors that influence obedience: 1. Proximity of authority figure 2. Legitimacy or prestige of the figure 3. Distance from the victim 4. Role models for defiance Culture influences conformity and obedience: Collectivistic: encourages social and 이 group ties (more conformity / obedience) Individualistic: Encourages individuality Ο (less conform / obedience) Group polarization: the more time spent w/a group the stronger their thoughts/ opinions will become (must have same opinion already) Peadice 4 4 M s Groupthink: desire for harmony w/in a group leads to everyone going along w/ the same thinking, ignoring other possibilities or bad ideas Bystander effect (diffusion of responsibility): the more ppl around the less likely we are to help someone in need (Kitty Genovese) Deindividuation: loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that encourage anonymity (mob mentality) • Social loafing: tendency for ppl in a group to exert less effort when pooling their effort together (tug of war) • Social facilitation: perform better on simple or well leamed tasks in the presence of others • False-consensus effect: we overestimate . the degree to which everyone else thinks / acts the way we do Superordinate goals: two or more groups work together to achieve a common goal, creates cohesiveness • Social trap: ppl put their own needs before the group needs, results in bad outcome (choose 5 or 15 demo) • Industrial/ Organizational Psvch: psych of work - best practices, relationships in the workplace or w/ company, how you feel about job (burnout) Altruism (prosocial behavior): unselfish interest in helping other ppl - happens bs of: o Social reciprocity norm: we give so we can get (help me and I'll help you( Social responsibility norm: act in ways 이 that benefit the community (moral sense of good) Ο Gain social approval • STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT (ZIMBARDO): classic "experiment" where individuals were assigned to be guards/ prisoners. w/in days they took on their roles and went too far. Highly unethical PERSONALITY Psychodynamic explanation: personality is largely unconscious, and shaped from early childhood experiences • id: our hidden true wants and desires (devil on your shoulder) superego: our moral conscious (angel on your shoulder) ego: part of the mind / personality that deals w/every day reality - what ppl see - mediates bw the id and super ego (its you!) Defense mechanisms - egos attempt to protect your from threats Repression: push memories back into the unconscious mind (sexual abuse is too traumatic to deal w/ so you repress it) • Regression: go into an earlier development period in the face of stress (during exam week you start to suck your thumb) Denial: refuse to acknowledge reality (refuse to believe you have cancer) • Rationalization: justify something happening (don't get into your collegejustify it was a crap college anyway) • Displacement: take feelings out on something else (can't tell at teacher, go home and yell at the dog) Projection: attribute personal shortcomings & faults on to others (man who wants to have an affair accuses his wife of one) • Reaction formation: transform unacceptable motive into his opposite (insecure about masculinity becomes extra aggressive) 이 Sublimation: replace unacceptable impulse w/ a socially acceptable one (person who likes fighting becomes professional kickboxer) How do we "test" this personality approach? Projective Tests: ambiguous stimuli shown to "reveal your unconscious" - inkblots and thematic apperception tests. Highly subjective, not considered reliability or valid Trait explanation: . Traits: enduring personality characte people can be described by these - have strong or weak tendencies. They are stable genetic, and predict other attributes. BIG FIVE personality : (acronym OCEAN) You vary on each of these o Openness : high levels = imaginative, independent, like variety; low = not opento change o Conscientiousness: high levels = organized, careful, disciplined; low= disorganized and messy o Extraversion: high levels = sociable, likesbeing center of attention, meeting new ppl(opposite is introversion: shy, timid, reserved) o Agreeableness: high levels = soft hearted, trusting, helpful; low levels = suspicious, not a team player o Neuroticism (emotional stability): high levels = mood swings, easy to stress: low= emotional stable, handles stress How do we "test" this personality approach?Personality inventories - special name for a test that uses factor analysis: statistical procedure used to identify similar components Humanistic explanation: Emphasized personal growth and free will. Self-actualization: fulfilling your full potential as person - self-actualized ppl are self aware, caring, spontaneous, open, secure • Emphasis on unconditional positive regard:attitude of acceptance regardless of circumstances Social-cognitive explanation: Behavior is a complex interaction of inner process and environmental influence - which influences personality Emphasizes conscious awareness, beliefs, expectations, and goals RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM: interaction of behavior, cognitions, and environment make up you. Person and cognitive factors Behance Environment {Joe is shy which makes him anxious in social situations (personal factor) - he just moved to a new school (environment) - so he doesn't talk to others much during lunch and bw classes (behavior).These factors reinforce each other.} • Self-efficacy: belief that one can succeed, so you ensure you do through actions - this influences your - seff-concept-how you view yourself in relation to others - which influences your triangle and self-efficacy Theories: MOTIVATION INSTINCT THEORY: innate, patterns fixed in response to stimuli building, (nest mating) (explains motivation) animal DRIVE REDUCTION: physiological creates aroused need tension (drive) that motivates you to satisfy the need (driven homeostasis: by equilibrium). "I'm hungry, seek out food I to decrease • APPROACH my hunger" CONFLICT THEORY (Lewin) o Approach approach conflict: situation; win - win conflict choose (you is which win you have to can eat out at ONE of your two favorite restaurants choose - you can only one though) Ο Ο Approach avoidance conflict: win - lose situation; outcome has positive and negative deal with aspects - conflict is you having to it Avoidance avoidance conflict: lose - lose; both outcomes are bad but you have to choose one (clean your room or do your homework) SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY: motivated intrinsically or extrinsically o Intrinsic motivation: inner motivation - you do it b/c you like it o Extrinsic motivation: motivation to obtain a reward (trophy) • INCENTIVE THEORY: driven by external rewards_(extrinsic motivation) • AROUSAL THEORY: sometimes we're driven to increase arousal through curiosity, experimentation, thrill seeking-2 associated theories: Ο YERKES DODSON LAW: humans seek optimum levels of arousal-easier tasks requires more arousal, harder tasks need less. Best is moderate levels Hht Ifrmancr LewlHich Dison 1 دلم Lasy Tasks Aruusd La lligh d o SENSATION SEEKING need THEORY: a varied amount of novel (new) experiences to be happy, so we seek it out - 4 types: •_Experience seeking: (desire things) to try new Thrill/adventure seeking: attraction to risky things (sky diving) Disinhibition: loss of self-control like things that result in (drugs, alcohol) •_Boredom susceptibility: inability tolerate to repetition (constantly change) seek Hunger Biology of hunger: o Leptin - stop eating o Ghrelin - start eating Psych of hunger: Environmental cues - time of day, social gatherings, etc Memory - amnesia patients don't remember when they ate, so they'll eat again Emotion • Historical theories focused on 2 things: o Physiological arousal (HR, blood pressure) o The cognitive experience of an emotion Some theories said these happen together, some said they're linear Current theories add a cognitive label or appraisal (we have to decide which emotion we're feeling) Some theories place the label before the arousal, some say its simultaneous / linear Reason why polygraphs are unreliable Biological Explanation for the difference in current theories - •Some stimuli are routed directly to the amygdala (fast route - simultaneous processing) (gut reaction to a cockroach) - some stimuli have to be thought about first and hence go to the frontal lobe (long route - label before) (first date jitters) Facial feedback hypothesis: being forced to smile will make you happier (cartoon study with pen in mouth) - supports physio exp. Before the label - replication of this is mixed Broaden and build theory: everyday pos. emotions broaden awareness, which builds skills and resilience over time, leading to better well-being. Positive Emotions Jay, Love, Contentment Interest Happiness Expands Inventory of Thoughts and Action BUILD Develops Physical, Mental and Social Resources TRANSFORM Advances Personal Growth and Creates More Pasitive Emotions •_Universal emotions: there are SIX universal emotions (happiness, anger, sadness, surprise, disgust, ALL cultures feat) seen across Display Rules:_social group or culture's norms of how to express certain emotions Mental and Physical Health Pillar Health/Stress • Health Psych - addresses physical well-being and illness Stress - associated w/ hypertension, headaches, immune suppression o Distress-stress that is negative or damaging o Eustress - stress that is positive or motivating (graduation) • Tend and Befriend Theory of Stress: some ppl cope by tending their own needs others needs. Some seek connections (befriend) w/ppl. (usually associated w/ women) GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME: three phases of a stress response 0 Alarm: temp. shock, fight/flight/freeze o Resistance: immune system enhanced, coping 0 Rosistance level to strass 3 / Exhaustion: body gives up, most likely to get sick High Low Alanm Shoc Corparte C 1g n. n k Γ S its 1 no it Resistance (adaptation) Exhaustion 1 1 Contiruous stress ΠΟ Medical Iherapy u -Death nentProblem-focused coping: solving or doing an something to alter the course of stress (to-do lol) list, time management, ask for help) • Emotion-focused coping: managing emotions when stressed (meditation, exercise) (drug / alcohol use is negative) Positive Psychology ng"ir N/ uater . Pos. Psych - researches factors leading to better well-being, resilience, pos. emotions, psych health Gratitude - experiencing and expressing gratitude increases well-being (giving thanks, giving back) Exercising signature strengths / virtues increases well-being o Wisdom - learning, curiosity o Courage - bravery, perseverance o Humanity - love, kindness o Justice - teamwork, fairness o Temperance - humility, forgiveness 이 Transcendence - gratitude, hope Posttraumatic growth - experiencing trauma can result in growth and resilience Explaining/Classifying Disorders 7 Perspectives to Explaining /Treating Perspective Biological Evolutionary Cognitive Behavioral Explanation Genes cause changes in NTs & brain Increased survival, reproduction Maladaptive thinking & emotions Maladaptive learned associations Treatment Medication & surgical techniques Cognitive restructuring Applied behavior analysis Psychodynamic Unconscious thoughts/ behvs from childhood Free association, dream interpretation Humanistic Lack of social support, not fulfilling Unconditional pos regard, client-centere d Sociocultural potential Maladaptive social/ cultural dynamics Interaction Models to Explain Disorders Biopsychosocial - combines bio, psych, and sociocultural factors Diathesis - Stress: individual has a genetic predisposition, disease must be "turned-on" by environmental stimuli (like stress) Eclectic: most ppl use a more than one perspective • Defining abnormal behavior: o Based on level of dysfunction o Is there perception of distress o Deviation from social norms Diagnosing abnormal behavior: diagnosing requires special training & evidence based diagnostic tools like: o DSM: Published by APA. 이 ICM: published by WHO Both contain: lists of behvs needed for diagnosis; codes for insurance coverage and stat tracking Diagnostic labels have positive and negative consequences: • Pos: acceptance, connections, easier to find treatment Neg: cultural and societal stigmas and discrimination NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS: inappropriate behaviors for age / maturity - usual onset in childhood • Attention deficit / hyperactivity (ADHD): has one or both - Inattention impacting ability to function academically/ socially Hyperactivity / impulsivity Causes- changes in prefrontal cortex, reticular activating system, limbic system; genetic Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): impairment in social relationships / communication & repetitive behvs •_ Causes - genetics, prenatal exposure to environmental stimuli FEEDING AND EATING DISORDERS: Anorexia nervosa; weight loss of at least 15% ideal weight, distorted body image, major calorie restriction, excessive exercise Bulimia nervosa: usually normal body weight, go through a binge-purge eating pattern (eat lots, then vomit) Causes of Eating Disorders • Biology: changes in hypothalamus, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, genetics • Sociocultural: social media exposure, parenting styles, hobbies Behavioral / Cognitive: learned assoс. and maladaptive thought patterns DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS • Major depressive disorder: extreme sadness and despair, apathy towards life Persistent depressive: long term "less severe" depression BIPOLAR DISORDERS o Mania: heightened mood, risky behaviors, fast talking, flights of ideas Bipolar I: manic episodes, usually full depressive episodes Bipolar II: hypomanic episodes, full depressive episodes, Causes of Depressive AND Bipolar Biology: Disorders lower levels of serotonin & norepinephrine linked to depression, higher levels of norepinephrine linked to mania. Runs in families suggesting GENES. Twin studies also support this. • Cognitive: negative thought patterns leads to depression • Behavioral: learned helplessness Sociocultural: more common in women, LGBTQ, low SES 이 Biopsychosocial model and Diathes. stress apply SCHIZOPHRENIA NOTMULTIPLE PERSONALITIES (DID)!o Acute schizophrenia: severe episode(s)w/normal functioning inb/w 이 Chronic - repeated episodes w/ decreased functioning SYMPTOMS o Positive Symptoms (not good - means something added)) • Hallucinations: sensory experiences w/o sensory stimulation (seeing and/or hearing things) Delusions: false beliefs (persecution: people are out to get them, grandeur: I am God Disorganized thinking / speech: word salads - string together sentences in nonsensical ways • Disorganized motor behavior - excitedcatatonia - sudden / unpredictable movement o Negative Symptoms (something taken away) Flat affect: lack ability to show emotions Disorganized motor behavior - catatonic stupor-become frozen / unmoving over periods of time Causes of Schizophrenia oGenetics: runs in families o_Dopamine hypothesis: too much dopamine in the brain o_Prenatal virus exposure Diathesis-stress ANXIETY DISORDERS Phobic: irrational fear that disrupts your lifeo Acrophobia - fear of heights o Arachnophobia - fear of spiders Agoraphobia- fear of specific social situations o Using public transport o Being in open places o Being in enclosed spaces w/ ppl (shops, theaters) o Standing in line or being in a crowd o Being outside of the home alone Panic Disorder: frequent and sudden panic attacks - unanticipated and overwhelming biological, psychological, and cognitive experiences of fear / anxiety (feels like a heart attack) o Culture bound ex. - • Ataque de nervios - uncontrollable screaming, shouting, crying assoc. w/ stressful event (often family) - assoc. w/ Caribbean and Iberian descent • Social anxiety disorder: intense fear of being judged, criticized, watched by others (can be paired w/ agoraphobia) o_Culture bound ex. - Ο 이 Combined Perspectives - Cognitive Behavioral therapу: Dialectical behavior therapy: talk therapy, adapted for intense emotions, help ppl understand how thoughts affect emotions and behaviors - originally for personality disorders, adapted for depression/ anxiety Rational-emotive therapy: identify unhealthy thought /behavior patterns and replace w/ new Other Techniques: o Group therapy: therapy w/ a group gives diverse perspectives, supportive environment w/like ppl - lacks indiv. Care o Hypnosis: used for pain control and anxiety - does not retrieve memories or cause regression Pecspeclives: Behavior al: reinforcement and condisioning, blank slate, reward and punishment, model Psychodynamic: unconscios thonghs and experi ences, childhood Humanistic: growth, Self-actualizasion, innately good, individual potensial Logni tive: thoushts (thinking) beliefs, attitudes Evolutionary: behaviors, mental processes, increase Survival EBQ "The eridence supportS Sociocultural: impau of culiure, religion, ethnicitg, family, orerali environment of thinking ( behaviur Bidlogical: genencs, NS, hamones, brain sstuctures, influece thinking ? behavior Biopsychosocia): interconneuion beiween bidogy, psycholos y Socio- environmenial factors

• emphasizes the complex interplay between biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding behavior and mental processes.