Development in Infancy and Childhood
Critical Review Revisions
Critical review revisions feedback discussed.
Students who submitted revisions generally performed well.
Possible outcomes include receiving full or partial points.
Students who did not submit revisions received a zero, but that score is dropped.
The lowest of two critical review scores is dropped, with the higher score reflected in the grade book.
Upcoming Quizzes
A quiz is due this weekend.
There are one to two more quizzes remaining in the course.
Development Topics
The session will continue with discussions on social development, focusing on attachment in infancy and childhood.
Attachment in Infancy and Childhood
Attachment is defined as the bond formed between a baby and their primary caregiver.
Historically, attachment was primarily considered in the context of a baby and mother, but can involve any caregiver (father, grandparents, siblings, pets).
Infants can attach to multiple individuals, influencing their social development.
Key Researchers in Attachment
Conrad Lorenz
Conducted studies on imprinting with geese.
Imprinting is when a gosling follows the first moving object it sees after hatching.
Critical period for imprinting: If the gosling does not see any moving object within a certain time frame after hatching, it will not imprint on anything.
Lorenz demonstrated this by being the first moving object seen by newly hatched goslings; they imprinted on him, following him around.
Once an imprint is formed, it is irreversible; the gosling will follow that figure for life.
Harry Harlow
Investigated whether baby monkeys attach based on sustenance (food) or comfort.
Harlow used rhesus monkeys in experiments where they were raised with either a wire mother (providing food but no comfort) or a cloth mother (providing comfort).
Findings:
Baby monkeys spent significantly more time with the cloth mother, indicating attachment was based more on comfort rather than food.
Harlow concluded that attachment is influenced more by emotional warmth than by physical necessities.
Harlow's studies revealed that contact comfort was the primary variable overshadowing other factors such as nursing.
Behavior Feedback:
When frightened, monkeys ran to their cloth mother for comfort, demonstrating the importance of attachment for emotional security.
Mary Ainsworth
Developed the Strange Situation test to explore attachment relationships systematically.
Overview of the Strange Situation Test:
A 21-minute observational assessment conducted with infants and their primary caregivers in a controlled environment.
Phases of the Strange Situation:
Entering a playroom and encouraging exploration (testing the child's willingness to explore and see if they use the caregiver as a secure base).
A stranger enters, assessing stranger anxiety in the child.
The caregiver leaves the room (measuring separation anxiety).
The reunion phase (most crucial): Observes how the child reacts when the caregiver returns.
Findings from the Strange Situation Test led to the identification of four attachment styles:
Secure Attachment: Child is not overly distressed by parent leaving and is comforted by their return; demonstrates a balance of independence and exploration.
Insecure Resistant Attachment: Child is clingy to the caregiver and reacts strongly to separations, often due to inconsistent caregiver responses (ambivalence).
Insecure Avoidant Attachment: Child shows little interest or avoids the caretaker upon return, may stem from past rejection.
Disorganized Attachment: Child displays confused behavior upon reunification with the caregiver, often associated with past trauma or abuse.
The reunion phase is vital for determining attachment style; behaviors during this time provide insight into the child's relationship with their primary caregiver.
A secure attachment is considered the optimal outcome, affecting long-term emotional health.
Development of Moral Understanding
Lawrence Kohlberg: Studied moral development, focusing on reasoning rather than answers.
Heinz's Dilemma: A moral scenario used to study reasoning in moral decision-making; discusses a husband stealing a drug to save his dying wife.
Kohlberg categorized responses into three levels of moral development:
Preconventional Morality: Focus on rewards and punishments; responses are based on potential consequences (e.g., fear of jail).
Conventional Morality: Focus on societal norms and approval; reasoning based on societal rules and expectations (e.g., stealing is bad, following the law).
Postconventional Morality: Based on personal ethical principles; maintaining your own values regardless of societal norms (e.g., saving a life is more important than following laws).
Kohlberg noted that there are no strict ages for these moral stages; individuals may not fully achieve the final stage.
Adolescent Development
Focus on cognitive development from ages 12 onwards, including:
Piaget's Formal Operational Stage: Abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning emerge.
Development of the prefrontal cortex, which continues until approximately age 25.
Impacts impulse control, risk assessment, and long-term planning abilities.
Individuals with ADHD typically have delayed emotional maturity and development of the prefrontal cortex.
Adolescent Egocentrism:
Imaginary audience: The perception that others are constantly observing and judging one's behavior.
Personal fable: The belief in one’s unique experiences, often leading to risky behaviors.
Shift from parental to peer relationships (increased peer pressure).
Identity Development
James Marcia: Proposed four identity statuses in late adolescence:
Foreclosed Identity: Early commitment based on external expectations with no exploration.
Identity Diffusion: Lack of commitment and direction, often result of being overwhelmed by choices.
Psychosocial Moratorium: Exploration phase; commitment is not yet made, but exploration of options occurs.
Identity Achievement: Completion of identity exploration with a clear pursuit of individual goals.
Identity formation is a longer process, possibly continuing well into adulthood.
Conclusion
Social and cognitive development take place through stages, with significant influences evident from early attachment experiences leading into adolescence and beyond.