HBS 2nd Semester study guide

Cardiovascular system

Heart Anatomy and Circulation

  • Structures of the Heart

    • Chambers: Right/left atrium, right/ left vertical

    • Valves: Tricuspid, Bicuspid (Mitral), Pulmonary Semilunar, Aortic Semilunar

    • Vessels entering/leaving:

      • Into right atrium: Superior/Inferior Vena Cava

      • Into the left atrium: Pulmonary veins

      • Out of the right ventricle: Pulmonary artery

      • Out o the left ventricle: Aorta

    • Septum: separates right and left sides

    • Chrdae tendineae and papillary muscles: Controles Valve movements

  • Major Arteries and Veins

    • Arteries (carry blood away from heart): Aorta, Pulmonary arteries

    • Veins (Carries blood twords the heart): Vena Cava (superior and infurior), Pulmonary veins

    • Coronary arteries: Supply oxygen-rich blood to heart tissue

  • Direction of Blood Flow

    • Body → Vena Cava →Right atrium

    • Right atriums → Tricusbid valve →Right Ventrical

    • Right Ventrical → Pulmonary valve → pulmonary artery → Lungs

    • Lungs → Pulmonary Veins→ left atrium

    • Left atrium → bicuspid Valve → Left ventricle

    • Left ventricle → Aortic Valve → Aorta → body

  • Comparison: Veins, Arteries, Capillaries:

Arteries

Veins

Capillaries

Direction

Away from heart

Towards Heart

Between Arteries and veins

Oxygen Content

Oxygen-rich (except pulmonary)

Oxygen poor (except pulmonary)

Exchange of gasses

Wall Structure

Thich, Muscular, elastic

Thin Valves present

One cell layer thick

Pressure

High

Low

Low

Conditions

  • Varicose Veins

    • Definition: Swollen, twisted veins (usually in legs)

    • Causes: Valve failure → blood pools → pressure build us

    • Treatments: Compression socks, sclerotherapy, laser treatments, surgery

  • Peripheral Artery Disease (PAD)

    • Definition: Narrowed arteries reduce blood flow to limbs

    • Causes: Atherosclerosis (fat build up), smoking, diabetes

    • Symptoms: Leg pain when walking (Claudication), cold feet, poor healing wounds

    • Diagnosis: ABI  (Ankle- Brachial Index), Ultrasound, angiography

    • ABI = (Highest Ankle Systolic Pressure) / (Highest Brachial Systolic Pressure)

Diagnostic and Comparisons

  • EKG Parts

    • P wave: Atrial depolarization

    • QRS complex: Ventricular depolarization

    • T wave: Ventricular repolarization

  • Arrhythmia types and EKS Appearances:

Type

EKG Features

Tachycardia

Fast rhythms, short intervals

Bradycardia

Slow rhythms, long intervalves

Atrial fibrillation

No clear P waves, irregular spacing

Ventricular Fibrillation

Disorganized waves, emergency

  • Compare: Bypass, Balloon Angioplasty, Stents

Treatment

Description

Use

Bypass

Created a detour using a grafted blood vessel

Severy blockages, multiple arteries

Balloon Angioplasty

Balloon inflates to widen the artery

Mild/Moderate blockages

Stent

Metal mesh inserted to keep artery open

Often uses with angioplasty

  • LDL vs HDL

Type

Stands for

Function

Effects on Heart Health

LDL

Low- Density Lipoprotein

Delivers cholesterol to tissues

“Bad” Cholesterol- Builds plaques

HDL

High- Density Lipoprotein

Removes Cholesterol from blood

“Good” Cholesterol - clears arteries


Diet and Heart Health 

Heart- Healthy foods and effects

Food

Benefits

Fish (omega-3)

Lowers triglycerides, reduces plaque buildup

Avocado

Healthy fats, reduces LDL

Oates

Soluble fiber, reduces cholesterol

Broccoli

Antioxidants, fiber, anti-inflammatory

Berries

Rich in polyphenols, reduces BP and cholesterol

Dark Chocolate (in moderation)

Flavonoids, improves circulation

Chicken

Lean protein, alternative to red meat


 

Pulmonary system

  • Structures and functions

    • Nasal cavity: Filters, warmes air

    • Pharynx/Larynx: breathing, swallowing, and voice production.

      • Pharynx: Above, food and air passageway

      • Larynx: Below, sound production

    • Trachea: Windpipe, reinforced with cartilage

    • Bronchi/Bronchioles: into lungs

      • Bronchi: transfers air from Trachea to avioli

      • Bronchioles: Becomes so after it gets too small

    • Alveoli: Glass exchange with capillaries

  • Compair: Left vs Right Lung

Lung

Features

Right

3 Lobes (oblique fissure and the horizontal fissure), shorter (due to the liver below)

Left

2 lobes, cardiac notch for heart

  • Total Lung Capacity (TLC)

    • Definition: Max Volume of air the lung can hold

    • Components:

      • Tidal Volume (TV): Normal breath (~500mL)

      • Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): Extra in (~3100mL)

      • Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): Extra out (~1200mL)

      • Residual Volume (RV): Air Left after full exhale (~1200mL)

    • TLC= TV+IRV+ERV+RV

    • Measured by spirometry

 

Histology

Structures to Identify

  • Blood Vessels:

    • Artery: Thick walls, rounded luman, collagen layer

    • Vein: Thinner walls, irregular Lumen, has its own valves, collagen layer

    • Capillary: Once-cell layer wall

  • Muscle Types:

    • Smooth: No striations, spindle-shaped (Walls of organs)

    • Cardiac: Striated, branched, intercalated discs (heart)

    • Skeletal: STriated, multinucleated, voluntary

  • Pulmonary:

    • Bronchiole: Circular, no cartilage, smooth muscles

    • Alveoli: Thin-walled sacs, site of gas exchange

Endocrine System

  • Feed Back loops:

    • Negative Feedback: STabilizes (e.g. insulin lowers blood sugar)

    • Positive feedback loop: Amplifies (ex. Oxytocin durring child birth)

  • Hormone Solubility

Type

Transport

Receptor Locations

Action Speed

Water soluble

Free in Blood

Cell membrane

fast 

Fat soluble

Carrier proteins

Inside cell

slower

  • Hormone FUnctions and Origins

Hormone

Source

Function

Epinephrine/Norepinephrine

Adrenal medulla

Fight of flights, HR, BP

Glucagon

Pancreas (a cells)

Rises blood pressure

Insuline

Pancreas (b cells)

Lowers blood sugar

Estradiol

Ovaries

Female Sex Characteristics

Testosterone

Testis

Male Sex characteristics

Oxytocin

Posterior pituitary

Contractions, bonding

Prolactin

Anterior pituitary

Milk production

T3/T4

Thyroid (neck)

Metabolism Regulation

HGH

Anterior pituitary

Growth

IGF

Liver

Workes with HGH, tissue growth

Melatonin

Pineal Gland

Sleep-wake cycle

  • Gland Damage Predictions

    • Use Hormone levels + symptoms to trace to affected gland:

      • High TSH + Low T3/T4: Thyroid problems

      • Low ACTH + Low cortisol = Pituitary issue

      • High Glucose + Low insulin = Pancreas issue

  • Hormone Graph Interpretation

    • Recognize time-course changes in hormone levels

    • Identify feedback type (negative/positive)

    • Match abnormal patterns to dysfunctions

System Integration

Histamine Interactions

Systems

Effects of Histamine

Smooth muscles

Constriction (ex. bronchioles) →asthma

Cardiovascular

Vasodilation→BP↓

↑Permeability

Respiratory

Mucus secretion, Bronchoconstriction


Healthy Values for Patient Assessments

Measurements m

Normal Range

Heart Rate

60-100 bpm

Blood pressure

~120/180 mmg

ABI (Ankle-Brachial Index)

1.0-1.4 (Low =PAD)

Pulse Oximetry

95-100%

HDL

>60 mg/dL

LDL

<100 mg/dL

Total Cholesterol

<200 mg/dL

  • Use deviations to detect:

    • High BP → Hypertensions

    • High heart beats → tachycardia

    • Low heart beats → bradycardia

    • Random heartbeat → arrhythmias/fibrillation

    • Low ABI → PAD

    • Low O2 Sat → Respiratory Distress/ Anemia

    •  High LDL/Low LDL → Atherosclerosis risk