language variation

Language Variation

Dialects Definitions

• Popular Definition: A form of a language regarded as substandard, incorrect, or corrupt; carries a judgmental connotation.

• Linguistic Definition: A distinct form of a language associated with identifiable geographic, ethnic, or social groups, characterized by specific features that differentiate it from other forms; carries a nonjudgmental connotation.

• Mutual Intelligibility: Variances are similar enough at all levels to allow for shared meaning between different speakers.

Dialects

• Linguistic View: A theoretical concept that aims to explain speaker variance within the same language.

• Real-World View: A continuum of variance within a language, meaning there is no absolute distinction between speakers and contexts.

Influences on Dialects

• Geographic Region: Variations arise based upon geographic locations.

• Ethnic Background: Ethnic groups influence the language used and its variations.

• Social Group: Social status and community influences contribute to dialect formation.

• Mutual Intelligibility: Essential for the variance to be recognized as a dialect.

Mutual Intelligibility Contradictions

• Chinese Dialects:

  • Mandarin and Cantonese are both considered dialects of Chinese.

  • Despite being labeled dialects, speakers of Mandarin and Cantonese cannot understand each other.

  • Mutual intelligibility exists through their shared written language, using the same characters.

• Indigenous Languages in Arizona & New Mexico:

  • Tohono O’odham and Akimel O’odham are mutually intelligible, with extreme similarities at all linguistic levels.

  • Socio-political differences classify these as distinct languages.

• Other Examples: Includes Dutch & Flemish and Serbian & Croatian.

Linguistic Levels of Language Variation

• Phonological: Related to pronunciation styles.

• Lexical: Related to vocabulary choices.

• Syntactic: Related to sentence structure.

• Semantic: Related to meaning.

• Multiple Levels: Differences may occur at any linguistic level or across multiple levels simultaneously.

Phonological Variations

• Example Words:

  • Log vs. Dog

  • Cot vs. Caught

  • Pat vs. Dad

  • Pit vs. Put

  • Don vs. Dawn

• Notable Achievements: Variations can be pronounced differently across speakers.

• Context-Specific Applications: Accents influenced by geographic or ethnic factors can lead to noticeable but still intelligible differences.

• Definition of Accent: A way of pronouncing words characteristic of a particular region or country (Definition sourced from Merriam-Webster).

Lexical & Semantic Variations

• Rapid Changes: Influenced by social, generational, and gender contexts.

• Lexical Categories: Variations affect all categories of vocabulary.

• Context-Determined Meaning: The meaning at the semantic level can change based on context.

• Examples:

  • Sick, wicked, mad (adjective)

  • Jawn (noun)

  • Bubbler (noun)

Syntactic Variations

• Stability: More stable over time compared to lexical and semantic levels.

• Rule Structures: Typically, have at least simple rules associated with use.

• Usage in Closed Groups: Often found in isolated groups defined by shared characteristics (e.g., socio-economic status, ethnicity, geographic isolation).

Standard Language

• Socio-Political Judgment: Recognized within formal language contexts such as legal, educational, and governmental spheres.

• Prestige Variation: Reflects the language of the subculture holding significant power and prestige.

• Example: In the USA, the Standard American English (SAE) is commonly used.

Delving Deeper: Linguistic Examination Examples

• Labov’s Experiment (1972):

  • Purpose: To study the phonological phenomenon of /ɹ/ pronunciation within a NYC population.

  • Hypothesis: Variations in /ɹ/ pronunciation differ by social class, with more standard pronunciation among higher socioeconomic status (SES) individuals.

  • Assumptions:

    • Salespeople tend to adopt prestige from their customers.

    • This borrowed prestige is reflected in their pronunciation.

    • The pricing of department stores correlates to the SES level of customers.

    • The hypothesis can be tested across different SES-level department stores.

Labov’s Experiment (1972) - Store Levels

• Identified Stores:

  • High SES: Saks

  • Mid SES: Macy’s

  • Low SES: S. Klein

• Hypothesis Testing: Clientele at these stores will exhibit corresponding SES levels, influencing salespeople’s pronunciation of /ɹ/.

Labov’s Experiment (1972) - Procedure

• Method: Researchers asked salespeople to pronounce a specific phrase to examine targeted pronunciation of “fourth floor” across two contexts:

  • Casual

  • Careful

• Trials: Two trials per salesperson in a blind setup.

Labov’s Experiment (1972) - Results

• Support for Hypothesis: Results indicated the following:

  • Context vs. Store**:

  • Saks: 30% overall (32% context-specific, 63% casual, 64% careful)

  • Macy’s: 20% overall (31% context-specific, 44% casual, 61% careful)

  • S. Klein: 4% overall (17% context-specific, 8% casual, 18% careful)

Labov’s Experiment (1972) - Conclusions

• High SES: Used standard pronunciation more frequently across all contexts.

• Significance: Context differences were not significant for high SES but were significant for mid and low SES groups.

• Awareness: Participants demonstrated awareness of their pronunciation differences and tended to use standard pronunciation more in careful contexts.

Informal Styles in Standard English

• Characteristics: Standard American English (SAE) includes greater abbreviation, shortening, contraction, and deletion.

• Rule-Governed: Informal styles are governed by specific language rules.

Abbreviation Examples

• Tag-Controlled Deletions:

  • Rule: Subject and auxiliary verbs can be deleted under certain conditions if a tag exists and the auxiliary is contracted.

  • Example:

    • “You’re going to the store, aren’t you?” ➔ (“Going to the store, aren’t you?”)

• “Be”, “Do”, “Have” Deletions:

  • Rule: Subject and the “be” verb are deleted only if they can be contracted.

  • Examples:

    • “Got some gum?” (Do you have some gum?)

    • “Going to the movies?” (Are you going to the movies?)

    • “Want some company?” (Do you want some company?)

Pragmatics in Abbreviations

• Context Shared: Practical shortening often requires a shared context to support the meaning.

One-Way Intelligibility

• Defined as a phenomenon occurring when speakers of differing but historically related languages can understand each other's language without being able to use it fluently.

• Examples:

  • Brazilian Portuguese speakers understanding Bolivian Spanish, but not vice versa.

  • Danish speakers understanding Swedish, but not vice versa.

Other Significant Language Variances

• Lingua Franca: A shared language used by participants of varying native languages during conversation.

• Pidgin: Contact languages where one group dominates another politically or economically; simplifies communication.

• Creole: Derived from a pidgin, becoming the primary language of a group of speakers with expanded vocabulary and grammar.

• Jargon: Specialized vocabulary serving a specific group's needs (e.g., medical or educational jargon); largely unintelligible to outsiders.

• Slang: Rapidly changing informal styles associated with particular social groups, often using regular vocabulary in new meanings.

Additional Language Variations

• Taboo Language: Obscenities used outside designated contexts, often emotionally charged and culturally defined.

• Code-Switching: Process by which a speaker mixes languages during discourse.

• Borrowing: Incorporation of words from one language to another that eventually becomes common usage.

Importance to Speech-Language Pathologists (SLPs)

• SLPs must have knowledge of language and variances to:

  • Differentiate between language differences and language disorders or delays.

  • Understand when and how to address language differences to benefit individuals.