Memory

Academic Ethics and Citations

  • Purpose of Citations:

    • Indicate to the reader the sources of information, allowing them to find the evidence.

    • Required for all information from other sources, not just direct quotes.

    • Stricter rules exist for direct quotes; in-text citations must include page numbers, e.g., (Jones, 2022, p. 421).

    • Ensure all citations in the references section match corresponding in-text citations.

In-Text Citations and APA Basics

  • Reference Manual: APA 7th edition (Liu, 2020, 03:26).

  • No Page Number: If no page number is available, utilize paragraph numbers or section headings for citation.

Class Agenda

  • How Memory Functions

  • Parts of the Brain Involved in Memory

Understanding Memory

  • Definition of Memory: The ability to learn and store information, encompassing everything we have learned and can remember.

    • Major components of memory include:

    • Encoding

    • Storage

    • Retrieval

Memory Functionality

  • Three Functions of Memory:

    1. Encoding: Input of information into the memory system.

    2. Storage: Retention of encoded information over time.

    3. Retrieval: Getting information back into awareness.

  • Memory is likened to an information-processing system akin to a computer. However, human memory is not merely a neutral storage device; it is subject to biases and reconstructive processes.

Encoding Process

  • Examples of Encoding: Learning to drive a car requires focused attention to encode relevant information. Once learned, additional encoding becomes automatic.

    • Characteristics of Encoding:

    • Labels and organizes information.

    • Connects new information to existing knowledge.

  • Types of Processing in Encoding:

    • Automatic Processing:

    • Involves encoding time, space, frequency, and meaning without conscious effort (e.g., remembering when you studied).

    • Effortful Processing:

    • Requires time and conscious effort to encode details (e.g., what you studied or learning new skills).

Types of Encoding

  1. Semantic Encoding:

    • Involves encoding words and their meanings. Most effective; meaning enhances recall abilities and entails deeper processing.

  2. Visual Encoding:

    • Involves encoding images; concrete words enhance recall compared to abstract words.

  3. Acoustic Encoding:

    • Involves encoding sounds.

  • Self-Reference Effect:

    • Individuals have enhanced memory for personal information compared to less relevant material.

Memory Storage Systems

Baddeley & Hitch Model

  • Overview:

    • Model of short-term memory depicting different forms based on information type.

    • Includes:

    1. Visuospatial sketchpad

    2. Episodic buffer

    3. Phonological loop

    • Central executive function supervises information flow between systems (short-term memory to long-term memory).

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

  • Summary of Process:

    • Information undergoes three distinct stages before being stored in long-term memory. Mirrors computer processing.

Sensory Memory

  • Definition:

    • Brief storage of sensory events (sights, sounds, tastes).

    • Duration: Up to a couple of seconds. Non-essential information is discarded; vital information is transferred to short-term memory.

The Stroop Effect

  • Description:

    • The Stroop Effect demonstrates the difficulty in naming colors of words when color and word conflict occur. This study aids in understanding sensory memory.

Exercises for Memory Assessment

  • Participants will recall a series of spoken numbers, assessing short-term memory retention independently.

  • Follow-up post-exercise: Participants evaluate their recollections against given answers.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

  • Characteristics:

    • Temporary storage system processing incoming sensory data with a typical duration of about 20 seconds.

    • Capacity: Approximately 7 items ± 2 (George Miller's observation).

  • Memory Consolidation:

    • Process involving the transfer of STM to long-term memory, often achieved through rehearsal (conscious repetition of information).

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

  • Definition:

    • Continuous information storage with no limits; akin to a computer hard drive.

  • Components of LTM:

    • Explicit Memory (Declarative):

    • Conscious memories of facts and events, comprising:

      • Semantic Memory: Knowledge of words and concepts (e.g., knowing the current President).

      • Episodic Memory: Personal life events (e.g., recollecting one’s 5th birthday).

      • Hyperthymesia: Some individuals possess exceptional episodic memory.

    • Implicit Memory:

    • Unconscious memories, often involving learned behaviors.

    • Procedural Memory: Skills/actions (e.g., riding a bike).

    • Involves emotional conditioning effects as well.

Retrieval in Memory

  • Definition:

    • The process of recalling stored information back into conscious awareness.

  • Methods of Retrieval:

    1. Recall: Accessing information without cues (e.g., essay tests).

    2. Recognition: Identifying previously learned information upon encountering it again (e.g., multiple-choice tests).

    3. Relearning: Reacquiring information previously learned, often with greater ease.

Memory Function Biases

  • Self-Reference Effect:

    • Tendency to enhance retention of information relating personally to the individual.

  • Recency Effect:

    • Bias towards remembering the last pieces of information more distinctly than earlier information due to it still residing in short-term memory.

  • Primacy Effect:

    • Tendency to remember earlier information better because it had more rehearsal time.

Knowledge Assessment Questions

  • Sensory Memory Example:

    • Identification of sensory memory through an experience.

  • Procedural Memory Example:

    • Automatic actions learned through repetition.

  • Short-Term Memory Example:

    • Replaying teacher's instructions in head denotes usage of STM.

Brain Regions in Memory

Historical Background

  • Karl Lashley's Research:

    • Searched for engrams as physical memory traces by observing trained rats.

    • Results indicated no engram, but led to the Equipotentiality Hypothesis: Damage in part of a brain region could be compensated by other parts.

Contemporary Research

  • Eric Kandel's Work:

    • Investigated synapses and their role in memory storage.

    • Suggested that memories are connected to specific neural circuits across brain areas.

Key Brain Regions and Functions:

  1. Amygdala:

    • Involved in emotion regulation, particularly fear and aggression.

    • Link between emotional arousal and memory consolidation.

  2. Hippocampus:

    • Critical for explicit memory, recognition, and spatial navigation.

    • Damage leads to issues with forming new declarative memories.

  3. Cerebellum:

    • Facilitates procedural memory processing and classical conditioning.

  4. Prefrontal Cortex:

    • Involved in semantic task processing and retrieval.

Neurotransmitters and Memory

  • Mechanism:

    • Enhanced neurotransmitter activity leads to stronger synaptic connections, facilitating memory consolidation.

  • Key Neurotransmitters Involved:

    • Epinephrine

    • Dopamine

    • Serotonin

    • Glutamate

    • Acetylcholine

  • Arousal Theory:

    • Strong emotional events foster robust memory formation, while weaker emotional experiences yield poorer memory retention.

    • Illustrated by flashbulb memories, vivid recollections tied to major life events.

Flashbulb Memory

  • Definition:

    • Clear records of emotionally significant events, often influenced by cultural context and personal involvement (e.g., JFK's assassination, September 11 attacks).

Case Study Review: Patient H.M.

  • Background:

    • Bilateral removal of temporal lobes resulted in anterograde amnesia.

    • Highlights the hippocampus's role in new memory formation, contrasting procedural memory retention.

Summary of Memory Concepts

  • Identification of various memory stages and types, the Three-Stage Model, components of short-term and long-term memory, and retrieval mechanisms.

  • Summary of brain areas linked to memory functions and their specific contributions.

Knowledge Assessment Question (H.M.):

  • Identification of the form of memory allowed with skill learning post-surgery.