AP psychology unit 4 notes

## Theories of Emotion

James-Lange Theory:

• Emotion results from physiological responses to a stimulus.

- Event/Stimulus -> Nervous system/body alerted -> Emotional experience.

Cannon-Bard Theory:

- Physiological and emotional responses occur simultaneously.

Schachter Two-Factor Theory:

• Emotions arise from physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation.

- Stimulus -> Physiological arousal -> Cognitive appraisal -> Emotional experience.

Joseph LeDoux's Theory:

- Emotions can directly reach the amygdala, bypassing the cortex, causing immediate reactions.

Appraisal Theory:

• Emotions stem from evaluating situations as harmless or dangerous, often unconsciously.

Facial-Feedback Hypothesis

• Facial expressions can influence emotions.
• Example: Smiling can trigger happiness.

Broaden-and-Build Theory

• Positive emotions broaden awareness; negative emotions narrow focus.

Commonly Expressed Emotions

1. Anger
2. Disgust
3. Sadness
4. Happiness
5. Surprise
6. Fear

## Display Rules vs. Elicitors

Display Rules: Social/cultural guidelines for emotional expression.

Elicitors: Stimuli that trigger emotions.

Cultural Impact on Display Rules

• Socioeconomic status: Higher status may show less emotion.
• Age: Emotional expression varies by age.

## Attribution in Social Psychology

Attribution: Explaining behavior or events.

## Dispositional vs. Situational Attribution

Dispositional: Internal traits.

Situational: External factors.

Attribution Theory

• Explains behavior through dispositional or situational attribution.

## Attribution Biases

Self-Serving Bias: Attribute successes to disposition, failures to situation.

Actor-Observer Bias: Attribute own behavior to situation, others' to disposition.

Fundamental Attribution Error: Overemphasize disposition, underestimate situation.

Explanatory Style

• How causes of events are explained.

## Optimistic vs. Pessimistic

Optimistic: Positive outcomes to internal factors, negative to external.

Pessimistic: Positive outcomes to external factors, negative to internal.

Locus of Control

• Belief about control over life events.

## Internal vs. External

Internal: Outcomes from own actions.

External: Outcomes from outside factors.

## Key Concepts

Mere-Exposure Effect: Preference from familiarity.

Social Comparison: Evaluating self by comparing to others (upward/downward).

Relative Deprivation: Discontent from comparison.

Fraternalistic Relative Deprivation: Group feels disadvantaged.

Ingroup: Group one identifies with.

Outgroup: Group one doesn't identify with.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Belief influences behavior.

## Attitude Formation & Change

Belief Perseverance: Maintaining disproven beliefs.

Confirmation Bias: Favoring confirming information.

Cognitive Dissonance: Discomfort from inconsistent actions/beliefs.

Stereotypes: Overgeneralized beliefs.

## Prejudice vs. Discrimination

Prejudice: Biased thinking.

Discrimination: Unfair actions.

## Explicit vs. Implicit Prejudice

Explicit: Conscious prejudice.

Implicit: Unconscious prejudice.

Implicit Attitudes

• Unconscious beliefs/feelings.

Just-World Phenomenon

• Belief in a fair world where people get what they deserve.

Victim-Blaming

• Blaming the victim.

## Out-Group Homogeneity Bias vs. In-Group Bias

Out-Group Homogeneity: Out-group members seen as more similar.

In-Group Bias: Favoring in-group members.

## Ethnocentrism vs. Cultural Relativism

Ethnocentrism: Own culture is superior.

Cultural Relativism: Cultures understood by own norms.

## Psychology of Social Situations

Social Norms: Unwritten rules for behavior.

Impact of Group Size on Conformity

• Larger groups increase conformity.

Conformity and Task Difficulty

• Difficult tasks increase conformity.

## Cultural Impact on Conformity

Collectivist: Higher conformity.

Individualistic: Lower conformity.

Multiculturalism: Varies.

Conformity in Public vs. Private

• Higher in public.

Social Influence Theory

• How thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are affected by others.

## Normative vs. Informational Social Influence

Normative: Conforming to be liked.

Informational: Conforming for accurate information.

Persuasion

• Influencing beliefs, attitudes, behaviors.

## Central Route vs. Peripheral Route

Central: Using facts.

Peripheral: Using emotions.

## Persuasion Techniques

Halo Effect: Positive impression influences perception.

Foot-in-the-Door: Small request leads to larger.

Door-in-the-Face: Large request followed by smaller.

Obedience: Following authority.

Factors Influencing Compliance

1. Legitimacy
2. Proximity
3. Depersonalization
4. Dissenting peers

Studies on Obedience

1. Milgram's experiment
2. Stanford prison experiment

## Group Dynamics

Group Polarization: Extreme opinions in groups.

Groupthink: Prioritizing consensus over evaluation.

Deindividuation: Loss of self-awareness in groups.

## Other Social Concepts

Diffusion of Responsibility: Less accountability when others present.

Social Facilitation: Improved performance in presence of others.

Social Inhibition: Changing behaviors due to the social setting.

Social Loafing: Reduced effort in a group.

False Consensus Effect: Overestimating shared beliefs.

Social Traps: Short-term interest, long-term negative consequences.

Superordinate Goals: Shared goals promote unity.

I/O Psychologists: Apply psychology to workplace issues.

Prosocial Behaviors

• Actions benefiting others.

Altruistic Act

• Helping without expecting gain.

## Social Norms

Social Responsibility: Helping those in need.

Social Reciprocity: Expecting something in return.

Bystander Effect

• Less help when others are present.

Psychodynamic Approach to Personality

• Focuses on unconscious mind.

## Personality Tests

Projective: Open responses.

Objective: Limited responses.

## Examples of Personality Tests

Projective: Rorschach, TAT

Objective: Myers-Briggs

## Freud's Components

Id: Unconscious, pleasure-seeking.

Ego: Controls impulses, deals with reality.

Superego: Ideals, morality.

Interaction of Ego, Superego, Id

• Ego balances id and superego.

Defense Mechanisms

• Protect ego, reduce anxiety.

Common Defense Mechanisms

• Denial, Displacement, Projection, Rationalization, Reaction Formation, Regression, Sublimation, Repression.

Humanistic Perspective

• Personality grows with individual.

## Positive Regard

Unconditional: Acceptance without conditions.

Conditional: Acceptance with conditions.

## Positive Regard vs. Self-Concept

Positive Regard: Support from others.

Self-Concept: Beliefs about oneself.

## Self-Actualization vs. Self-Transcendence

Self-Actualization: Full potential.

Self-Transcendence: Beyond self-interests.

Social-Cognitive Theory

• Focuses on learning, experiences, cognition.

Reciprocal Determinism

• Interaction between personal factors, behaviors, environment.

## Self-Esteem, Self-Efficacy, Self-Concept

Self-Esteem: Overall perception.

Self-Efficacy: Task ability belief.

Self-Concept: Collection of beliefs.

Trait Theory

• Personality is set by characteristics.

Enduring Characteristics

• Consistent traits.

Big Five Theory (OCEAN)

• Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

Acronym for Big Five Traits

• OCEAN

Factor Analysis

• Identifies clusters of related items.

Likert Scale

• Measures attitudes.

Definition of Instincts

• Patterns of behavior that kick in when a stimuli is encountered.

Instinct Theory

• Behaviors driven by instincts.

## Needs

Primary: Biological.

Secondary: Psychological.

## Motivation

Intrinsic: Internal.

Extrinsic: External.

## Examples of Motivation

Intrinsic: Satisfaction.

Extrinsic: Payment.

Self-Determination Theory

• Intrinsic motivation is stronger.

Incentive Theory

• Motivated by rewards.

Drive-Reduction Theory

• Reduce drives to restore homeostasis.

Homeostasis

• Stable internal environment.

## Hormonal Impact on Hunger

Ghrelin: Signals hunger.

Leptin: Signals fullness.

## Brain Regions and Hunger

Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger.

The Pituitary Gland

• Influences metabolism and energy.

Cultural Impact on Hunger

1. Incorporation of food
2. Time of day
3. Portion sizes
4. Food prevalence

Arousal Theory

• Performance increases with arousal up to a certain point.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

• Overstimulation decreases performance.

Kurt Lewin's Conflict Patterns

• Approach-approach, Avoidance-avoidance, Approach-avoidance.

Sensation Theory

• Motivated by new experiences.

Sensation-Seeking Types

• Experience Seeking, Thrill/Adventure Seeking, Disinhibition, Boredom Susceptibility.