U.S. History and Government Practice Flashcards
Historical Analysis and Context of the Great Depression, the Watergate Scandal, and the Use of the Atomic Bomb
The economic landscape of the early th century was defined by the transition into the Great Depression, characterized by systemic bank failures that drastically reduced the amount of money in circulation. As a result, businesses were forced to close because consumers lacked the funds to spend, which in turn increased unemployment rates significantly. By the year , millions of Americans were out of work, marking the United States' entry into the most severe economic crisis in its history. In response to these dire conditions, the federal government was forced to intervene. President Franklin D. Roosevelt introduced the New Deal, which was a series of comprehensive programs designed to provide relief, recovery, and reform. Key components of this initiative included the Social Security Act, which provided essential support for the elderly and the unemployed. Furthermore, government spending programs were implemented to create jobs and restore national confidence.
Historical analysis within this context requires adherence to specific definitions and tasks. To describe means to illustrate something in words or tell about it. Historical Context refers to the relevant historical circumstances surrounding or connecting the events, ideas, or developments in documents. To identify means to put a name to or to name. To explain means to make plain or understandable, giving reasons for or causes of, and showing the logical development or relationship of ideas. Relationships between historical events can be categorized as Cause and Effect, Similarity or Difference, or a Turning Point. A cause contributes to the occurrence of an event or the rise of an idea, while an effect is the consequence, result, impact, or outcome of that event. A turning point is a major event or historical development that brings about significant change on a local, regional, national, or global scale.
In the late th century, a separate constitutional crisis emerged during the presidency of Richard Nixon, as illustrated by political cartoons and legal reports from . A Herblock cartoon from the Washington Post, dated May , , depicts President Nixon hanging between reels of tapes, symbolizing the legal pressure he faced after Congress subpoenaed late-night White House meeting recordings. By July , , the Supreme Court ruled unanimously and definitively that the President must turn over these tape recordings to the Watergate special prosecutor for use in the trial of his highest aides. Chief Justice Warren E. Burger, delivering the court's opinion, rejected Nixon's broad claims of unreviewable executive privilege, stating that such claims must yield to the demonstrated, specific need for evidence in a pending criminal trial. Although Nixon expressed disappointment, he agreed to comply with the order to collect and index the tapes immediately.
At the close of World War II, a different set of ethical and strategic dilemmas arose regarding the use of atomic power. On July , , scientists from the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos, including E. Lapp and others, petitioned the President. They noted that while they initially feared an atomic attack from Germany, the defeat of that nation shifted the focus. They argued that an atomic attack on Japan could not be justified unless the terms of surrender were made public in detail and Japan was given a clear opportunity to surrender. The scientists warned that utilizing such power without considering moral responsibilities would open the door to an era of devastation on an unimaginable scale, given that future developments would have almost no limit to their destructive potential.
Contrasting this scientific caution, President Harry S. Truman issued a statement on August , , announcing the use of the atomic bomb at Hiroshima. Truman emphasized that the Japanese had begun the war from the air at Pearl Harbor and were now being repaid many fold. He described the bomb as a harnessing of the basic power of the universe, loosed against those who brought war to the Far East. Truman stated that the United States was prepared to obliterate every productive enterprise the Japanese had above ground, including docks, factories, and communications, to completely destroy their power to make war. He noted that the ultimatum issued at Potsdam on July had been rejected by Japanese leaders, leading to the rain of ruin from the air that followed.
The Louisiana Purchase: Constitutional Debates and National Expansion
The purchase of the Louisiana Territory is a seminal constitutional and civic issue in United States history, involving intense debate and significant governmental efforts. When the United States gained independence from Great Britain in , a primary concern was the presence of European powers on the western boundary and the necessity of unrestricted access to the Mississippi River. Settlers moving west found the Appalachian Mountains to be a barrier for shipping goods, making the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers the most efficient route to the port of New Orleans. In , the Pinckney Treaty with Spain secured the right of navigation and the right of deposit for U.S. goods in New Orleans. However, ownership of the territory shifted when Napoleon Bonaparte of France concluded the Treaty of San Ildefonso with Spain on October , , returning Louisiana to French control.
In , President Thomas Jefferson sent James Monroe to join Robert R. Livingston in Paris with the authority to spend \text{$ }9,375,000 to secure New Orleans and parts of the Floridas. By the time Monroe arrived on April , Napoleon had decided to sell the entire Louisiana Territory. Napoleon's decision was influenced by the impending loss of Saint Domingue, which had a population of over and was a major producer of sugar, coffee, and cotton. Without Saint Domingue, Louisiana was less useful as a granary, and Napoleon required funds for his upcoming campaign against Britain. This offer presented a constitutional dilemma for Jefferson, who held a strict, literal view of the Constitution. He believed the federal government only possessed powers specifically spelled out in the document, which did not include the power to purchase land from foreign governments.
Jefferson initially considered a constitutional amendment necessary to finalize the deal, writing to John Dickinson in that the Constitution did not grant the power of holding or incorporating foreign territory. However, his cabinet, including James Madison, and Treasury Secretary Albert Gallatin, argued that the power was implied under the treaty-making provisions of the Constitution. The Senate eventually supported this view, ratifying the treaty with a to vote on October , . On the other side of the political spectrum, New England Federalists led by Timothy Pickering opposed the purchase by adopting a strict constructionist view, reversing their traditional stance. They raised concerns about the high cost of what they called a desolate wilderness and feared the lack of a clear French title might lead to war with Spain.
The impact of the Louisiana Purchase was vast, effectively putting America on the path to becoming a continental power. The territory covered nearly square miles—specifically —and eventually led to the creation of new states: Louisiana, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Missouri, Kansas, Iowa, Nebraska, Minnesota, South Dakota, North Dakota, Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana. Historian Henry Adams ranked the annexation next in importance to the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. However, the expansion also sowed seeds of future conflict. Historian Sean Wilentz noted that the purchase disturbed public opinion regarding constitutional issues and the expansion of slavery, which would eventually contribute to the country being ripped apart during the Civil War.