Speech Acts: Locutionary, Illocutionary & Perlocutionary
Overview of Speech Acts
A speech act = any utterance that fulfils a communicative function (e.g.
apology, greeting, request, complaint, invitation, compliment, refusal).May be:
A single word (e.g. “Sorry!”) or
Several sentences (“I’m sorry I forgot you were coming today…”).
Goes beyond grammar; hinges on culturally appropriate use of language.
Mastery (communicative competence) = knowing:
When to speak, what to speak about, with whom, where, and how.
Once competent, speakers can participate in broader speech events.
Communicative Competence & Culture
Correct form ≠ successful communication; pragmatic appropriateness is crucial.
Cultural differences can yield misunderstandings, e.g.
“How are you?” usually = “Hello,” not literal health inquiry.
Indirectness varies by culture; non-native speakers must learn English norms.
Example:
John: “I couldn’t agree with you more.”
Maria (L1 transfer): thinks John disagrees; shows pragmatic misinterpretation.
The Three Layers of a Speech Act
1. Locutionary Act (Locution)
Basic act of producing a meaningful linguistic expression.
Contains a proposition formed by:
A referring noun/verb phrase + a predicate (Nordquist, 2015).
Content can be explicitly stated or implied.
Example: Saying “It’s hot in here.” (literal, factual statement).
2. Illocutionary Act (Illocutionary Force / Function)
The speaker’s intended social function while uttering.
Defined by social conventions; always intentional.
Listener must interpret correctly via contextual cues.
Same wording can carry different illocutionary forces:
“Where are you leaving?” → request for a ride or hint to depart.
“How are you?” → greeting, not health inquiry.
Illocutionary force = psychological attitude expressed (belief, desire, regret…).
3. Perlocutionary Act (Perlocutionary Effect)
Real-world consequence or mental state produced in the hearer —
persuading, angering, inciting, comforting, inspiring, etc.Distinct yet intrinsically linked to the prior illocution (Gelber, 2002).
Examples:
Shouting “Fire!” induces evacuation → audience convinced of danger.
Judge declaring “Guilty” → accused believes incarceration is imminent.
Distinguishing Meanings (Austin, 1962 → Jaworowska, 2004)
Locutionary Meaning = literal propositional content.
Illocutionary Meaning = intended social function.
Perlocutionary Meaning = hearer’s actual response.
Composite illustration – “It’s hot in here”:
Locution: temperature statement.
Possible Illocutions:
• Indirect request to open a window.
• Indirect refusal to close a window.
• Complaint that window is shut.Perlocution: someone opens window (or ignores complaint, etc.).
Success Conditions for Speech Acts
A speech act succeeds when audience correctly identifies the attitude
the speaker intended.Communication entails expressing an attitude:
Statement → belief
Complaint → displeasure
Request → desire
Apology → regret
Common English Speech-Act Formulas (U.S. usage)
Greeting: “Hi, Lizzie. How are things going?”
Compliment: “Hey, I really like your dress!”
Complaint: “We were told the refrigerator would be delivered in three days, but it’s been two weeks.”
Refusal: “I’d love to go to that concert, but Sunday just won’t work.”
Invitation: “Martha’s having friends over Saturday. Would you like to join?”
Pragmatic Difficulties for Non-Native Speakers
Lack of idiomatic knowledge or differing cultural conventions → pragmatic
transfer from L1.May interpret literal meaning and miss illocution (e.g., Maria’s confusion).
Importance of learning culturally bound expressions and indirect forms.
Speech Act Theory: Core Aims
(a) Explain how speakers use language to accomplish intended action.
(b) Explain how listeners infer those intentions from what is said.
Underlying assumption = Communicative Presumption:
Whenever X addresses Y, X intends an illocutionary act.Listeners therefore search for intended illocution beyond locution.