Informal Fallacies
Informal Fallacies Overview
Fallacies of relevance share the common feature that they present arguments with premises that are logically irrelevant but psychologically relevant.
I. Appeal to Force (Argumentum ad Baculum)
Definition: The fallacy of appeal to force occurs when an arguer presents a conclusion to another person while implying that some harm will befall them if they do not accept it.
Characteristics: Using threats or coercion to compel acceptance of a conclusion.
Examples:
Example 1:
Melvin asks his boss why he has to work weekends when nobody else does. The boss responds with a thinly veiled threat about finding another employee quickly.
Example 2:
In an ice cream shop, Alex is cut in line and confronted with fears of retaliation if he complains.
Example 3:
David informs a newspaper editor of his father's ownership of a department store that supports the newspaper, implying that negative coverage of his arrest would harm their business relationship.
II. Appeal to Pity (Argumentum ad Misericordiam)
Definition: The fallacy of appeal to pity occurs when an arguer attempts to persuade the reader or listener to accept a conclusion by invoking pity.
Characteristics: Emotional manipulation through appeals to compassion or sympathy without logical reasoning.
Examples:
Example 1:
A student argues for an "A" by recounting personal tragedies that affected their performance.
Example 2:
The plea to avoid a murder conviction on humanitarian grounds, citing the emotional distress of the defendant's mother.
Example 3:
A manipulator offers financial assistance to someone in distress while proposing a deal that may not be in their best interest.
III. Appeal to the People (Argumentum ad Populum)
Definition: The fallacy of appeal to the people involves leveraging the desires of the audience to support a conclusion.
Approaches:
Direct Approach:
Engaging large crowds emotionally to gain favor.
Indirect Approach:
Targeting individuals to promote behaviors based on social acceptance or pride.
Examples of Direct Approach:
Example 1:
A political figure rallies a crowd by invoking patriotism and collective strength.
Example 2:
An assertive speech about fighting for the future, filled with emotional rhetoric.
Examples of Indirect Approach Forms:
Bandwagon Argument:
Claiming that one should buy a product because many others are doing so.
Appeal to Vanity:
Implying that adopting a trend makes someone more admirable.
Appeal to Snobbery:
Conveying that a connection to elite institutions denotes social superiority.
Examples of Indirect Approach:
Bandwagon:
The rise in popularity of SUVs is used to promote purchasing one.
Appeal to Vanity:
Citing Taylor Swift as a trendsetter to sell bubble tea.
Appeal to Snobbery:
Implying that only Yale alumni would understand an argument.
IV. Argument Against the Person (Argumentum ad Hominem)
Definition: This fallacy involves an arguer attacking the person making the argument instead of the argument itself.
Common Forms:
Ad Hominem Abusive:
Direct personal attacks.
Ad Hominem Circumstantial:
Citing the circumstances of the opponent that cast doubt on their credibility.
Tu Quoque:
Deflecting criticism by pointing out the opponent's hypocrisy.
Examples:
Ad Hominem Abusive:
Attacks on political figures with derogatory labels.
Ad Hominem Circumstantial:
Dismissing arguments based on a politician's wealth as self-interest.
Tu Quoque:
Countering health advice by highlighting the speaker's own faults.
V. Straw Man Fallacy
Definition: The straw man fallacy occurs when an arguer distorts or oversimplifies an opponent's argument to make it easier to attack and then claims to have refuted the original argument.
Examples:
Example 1:
Misrepresenting a moral stance on animal rights as advocating a wholly vegetarian diet.
Example 2:
Equating a simple preference between pets with outright disdain for the other.
Example 3:
Legislation attacking Darwinism misinterpreted as a philosophical condemnation of scientific inquiry.
VI. Red Herring
Definition: The red herring fallacy occurs when an arguer diverts attention by shifting to an unrelated topic instead of addressing the initial argument.
Examples:
Example 1:
Discrediting a coffee brand by focusing on the polluting behavior of its parent company.
Example 2:
Deflecting criticism of government policies by listing unrelated activities to boost one's image.
Exercises: Identifying Informal Fallacies
Goals: Identify the informal fallacies in the following arguments:
Frank Thompson should get the accounting position because he has six hungry children.
Fallacy: Appeal to Pity.
You should join our protective organization to avoid losses from damages and theft.
Fallacy: Appeal to Force.
The Daily News criticizes our pollution while being one of the most significant polluters.
Fallacy: Ad Hominem Circumstantial.
Social media ruins students' skills despite the existence of appealing platforms.
Fallacy: Red Herring.
The president discusses dumping practices but is in competition with France; bias is expected.
Fallacy: Ad Hominem Circumstantial.
Joseph Coors' argument against government oversight is absurd as without it, society would collapse.
Fallacy: Straw Man.
You want Levi jeans because of their recent popularity in SoHo.
Fallacy: Bandwagon.
Negativity towards a CEO expressing optimism is expected due to bias based on personal interests.
Fallacy: Ad Hominem Circumstantial.