Restoring the natural environment in Tāmaki Makaurau
Te Haumanu Taiao: Restoring the Natural Environment in Tāmaki Makaurau
Kia haumanutia ko te taiao kia ora
Kia kumanutia ko te taiao kia mau
Acknowledgement of the significance of ecological restoration within Auckland (Tāmaki Makaurau).
Te Tiriti o Waitangi Partnership Statement
Te Tiriti o Waitangi (The Treaty of Waitangi) provides the high-level context for the relationship between Te Kaunihera o Tāmaki Makaurau (Auckland Council) and Ngā Iwi Mana Whenua o Tāmaki Makaurau.
Acknowledgment of the unique partnership relationship founded on Te Tiriti o Waitangi.
Consideration for ecological restoration projects must reflect the principles of Te Tiriti o Waitangi.
Ngā Iwi Mana Whenua o Tāmaki Makaurau includes nineteen iwi, each autonomous and unique.
The document aims to respect and not undermine the mana, mana motuhake, and tino rangatiratanga of each iwi.
Cover Photo and Historical Significance
Prominent Locations:
Rangitoto Island (named Ngā Pona Toru ā Peretū; the Three Knuckles of Peretū).
Ngā Tuaitara ā Taikehu refers to peaks named by Taikehu.
Te Rangi-i-toto-ngia-ai-te-ihu ā Tama te Kapua translates to "the day the nose of Tama-te-Kapua bled", linking to historical narratives involving conflicts among the ancestors.
Ngāi Tai tūpuna Peretū is mentioned, giving cultural heritage significance to the names.
Te Haumanu Acknowledgement
Design and Symbolism:
Māori graphic designs created by Hokimai-Anahera Rosieur with support from Ngā Iwi Mana Whenua o Tāmaki Makaurau and Auckland Council.
The bird design Te Haumanu embodies kaitiaki (guardianship) concepts and reflects the bond between people and the environment.
Intricate design patterns symbolize community dependency and vulnerability if the environment is not cared for.
Foreword (He Kupu Takamua)
Acknowledgment to various Iwi engaged in the development of Te Haumanu Taiao.
The foreword emphasizes the collaborative effort between Auckland Council and Ngā Iwi Mana Whenua through various forums, outlining the commitment to restoring the environment.
Intellectual Property Rights:
All cultural contributions are exclusively owned by the respective iwi and should be treated with respect.
Mihimihi (He Mihimihi)
A collective invocation to restore the environmental health and sustain local ecosystems.
The importance of individual and collective efforts in enhancing the natural environment for future generations is emphasized.
Call for unity in acknowledging and uplifting the voice of the indigenous people throughout Tāmaki Makaurau.
Karakia Haumanu Taiao
A traditional Maori blessing calling upon the forces of nature for the health of the environment.
Emphasis on working together collectively to restore and protect the ecosystems of the region.
Table of Contents
Mana Whenua Perspectives on Restoration
Whakapapa o te Taiao
Kaitiakitanga
Mana whenua roles and collaborative restoration projects
Ecological Restoration
Definitions and technical understandings
Importance of ecological restoration
Purpose of Te Haumanu Taiao
Restoration Project Planning and Implementation
Priorities for restoration
Site assessment and restoration actions
Ecosystem-Specific Restoration Guidelines
Riparian Restoration Guidelines
Appendices
Glossaries, site requirements, and further reading
Mana Whenua Perspectives on Restoration
Whakapapa o te Taiao/o te Ao Turoa:
Whakapapa binds spiritual to physical realms, connecting individuals to nature and ancestral lines.
The importance of maintaining relationships with ecosystems is emphasized.
Kaitiakitanga:
Involves stewardship and management derived from ancestral knowledge.
Extent of urban development affects mana whenua's ability to practice kaitiakitanga.
A historical context stresses that only tangata whenua can assume kaitiaki roles.
Engagement with Mana Whenua:
Engagement should occur early in project stages to ensure respect and understanding of iwi interests and aspirations.
Collaboration is essential for achieving restoration goals and adhering to cultural practices.
What is Ecological Restoration?
Defined as the recovery of ecosystems affected by human actions.
Ecosystems:
Inclusion of different types: forests, wetlands, coastal regions, etc.
Importance of ecological health for community wellbeing and biodiversity is emphasized.
Dearth of Original Ecosystems:
180 years of modifications have significantly degraded indigenous environments.
Restoration efforts are critical to retain and restore indigenous biodiversity and ecosystem processes.
Purpose and Objectives of Te Haumanu Taiao
The guide aims to empower stakeholders by providing a framework for successful implementation of restoration practices.
Integration of Māori principles, practice methods, and scientific approaches is highlighted as a key to achieving restoration success.
The focus is on long-term sustainability and self-sufficiency of restored areas.
Restoration Project Planning and Implementation
Priorities for Restoration:
Protect and enhance existing ecosystems.
Assess site conditions and pressures affecting ecosystems.
Restoration Actions:
Actions could include pest control, stock exclusion, replanting, and hydrology restoration as needed.
Importance of site assessments to evaluate existing conditions and potential restoration strategies.
Ecosystem-Specific Restoration Guidelines
Forest Ecosystems Restoration:
Identification, pressures, and planting schedules for forest return are provided.
Importance of maintaining biodiversity through diverse planting selections.
Riparian Restoration Guidelines
Addressing waterway health through restoring riparian zones to improve ecosystem services and biodiversity.
Emphasis on understanding river ecology and maintaining vegetation along waterways for their health and function.
Key Characteristics of Plant Species
Tolerant of wet soils: Adaptation of plant species to grow in water-saturated conditions.
Deer browse tolerant: Species that can withstand or recover from deer feeding.
Shade tolerant: Ability of plants to grow in lower light conditions, typically found under tree canopies.
Plant in canopy gaps: Importance of planting in areas where sunlight penetrates due to absence of tree cover, benefiting growth.
Improves bank stability: Role of vegetation in preventing soil erosion in water bodies.
Provides food for wildlife: Plants serving as a food source for birds, bats, lizards, etc.
Tolerant of salt-spray: Adaptation to coastal environments where salt-laden winds are prevalent.
Frost tender: Species susceptible to damage or death from frost exposure.
Improves in-stream habitat for fish: Contribution of plants to creating favorable living conditions for aquatic species.
Plant with shelter from wind: Importance of wind protection for young plants for survival and healthy growth.
Planting Guidelines and Proportions
Different recommended proportions and spacing for planting based on environmental conditions:
Kānuka: Preferable in fertile well-drained soils, higher proportions in harsh soil conditions.
Planting Mix: 20-40%; Plant Spacing: 1-1.4m
Mānuka: Tolerant to various soil conditions, effective in moist areas.
Planting Mix: 10-30%; Plant Spacing: 1-1.4m
Coastal plants: Suitability for saline coastal areas, include higher proportions in moist soils.
Planting Mix: 5-20%; Plant Spacing: 1-1.4m
Halophytes: Adaptation suitable for salt spray exposure near coastal forests.
Planting Notes: Mix percentages less than 10% to ensure proper spacing; recommend plant buffering techniques.
Key Native Species and Their Characteristics
Table 4.4: Revegetation Mix for Tāmaki Makaurau / Auckland
Houpara (Pseudopanax lessonii)
Growth Form: Tall shrub/tree
Height After 30 Years: 6m
Tī kōuka (Cordyline australis)
Growth Form: Tall shrub/tree
Height After 30 Years: 8m+
Kawakawa (Piper excelsum)
Growth Form: Shrub
Height After 30 Years: 5m
Harakeke (Phormium tenax)
Growth Form: Herb
Height After 30 Years: 3m
Karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus)
Growth Form: Canopy tree
Height After 30 Years: 10m
Pūriri (Vitex lucens)
Growth Form: Canopy tree
Height After 30 Years: 10m+
Taraire (Beilschmiedia tarairi)
Growth Form: Canopy tree
Height After 30 Years: 8m
Pōhutukawa (Metrosideros excelsa)
Growth Form: Canopy tree
Height After 30 Years: 10m
Kohekohe (Didymocheton spectabilis)
Growth Form: Canopy tree
Height After 30 Years: 10m
Ecosystem-Specific Pressures and Restoration Actions
Tōtara, Kānuka, Broadleaved Forest [WF5]
Key Pressures:
Herbivory by Deer and Possums: Monitoring and management required due to lack of natural regeneration.
Pest Plant Invasion: Need for control to enable native plant restoration.
Restoration Actions:
Enrichment planting where understorey is severely degraded.
Regular pest control measures, particularly for herbivores that browse on native species.
Pūriri Forest [WF7]
Key Pressures:
Urban Development: Continued fragmentation reducing habitat quality.
Pest Invasion and Predation: Rats and possums primarily affecting bird populations.
Restoration Actions:
Control of invasive plant species and regular monitoring of vegetation health.
Buffer plantings to mitigate edge effects from urban encroachment.
Kahikatea, Pukatea Forest [WF8]
Key Pressures:
Drainage and Altered Hydrology: Need to maintain moisture conditions for native species.
Grazing: Exclusion of livestock from flood-prone areas.
Restoration Actions:
Reinstate natural hydrology by filling in unnecessary drains.
Implement site-specific planting with native species to restore wetland characteristics.
Table 4: Ecosystem Pressure Management
Effective management of pressures is crucial for long-term health:
Regular monitoring of species composition, especially for frugivorous birds and associated flora.
Habitat protection through fencing and buffer planting where re-establishment of natural processes is required.
Case Studies in Restoration
12ha Gully Restoration Project
Location: Waiwera River Catchment
Project Duration: 5 years, initiated in 2018
Objectives: Restoration of kauri, podocarp, broadleaved forest type.
Pressures Addressed: Goat grazing and invasive species control.
Management Efforts: Included fencing, monitored pest and plant health, and utilized aerial systems for initial planting preparation.
NZ Sneezeweed Growth and Herbfield Ecosystems
Figure 103: NZ sneezeweed growing in lakeshore turf.
Herbfield (lakeshore turf) is at risk from various ecosystem pressures outlined in Table 4.40.
Table 4.40: Ecosystem Pressures for Herbfield [WL15]
Key Pressures:
Changes in Hydrology: This wetland ecosystem thrives under specific hydrological conditions. Disturbances may arise from:
Increases in water levels: Caused by vegetation clearance in the catchment. Similar outcome may occur due to:
Decreases in water levels: Caused by plantation forestry in the catchment of small dune lakes.
Suggested Action: Remove pines from the catchment (though this might diminish the extent of lakeshore turf) and prevent clearance of native vegetation.
Pest Plants: Pest species resistant to changing water levels, like Mercer grass and crack willow, can invade and smother native herbs.
Suggested Action: Control pest species to preserve indigenous vegetation, targeting those invading wetland margins.
Stock Grazing: Grazing and trampling by stock disrupt regeneration of herb species within the wetland.
Suggested Action: Exclude stock by erecting fences around wetland fragments and conduct regular monitoring of fence condition. Fences should have a suitable setback from the wetland edge to provide a buffer—buffer planting may also be required if indigenous vegetation is sparse and pest plant invasion is expected.
Pest Fish: The presence of invasive fish (e.g., koi carp) in adjacent lakes can diminish water clarity for lakeshore turf species.
Suggested Action: Control pest fish whenever possible, ensuring the appropriate permits from Fish & Game New Zealand are obtained as required.
Flaxland Ecosystem [WL18]
Regional Threat Status: Critically Endangered
Presence: Found in permanently saturated swamps frequently flooded or receiving surface flow from surrounding land, particularly in Tāmaki Makaurau / Auckland, often adjacent to streams and lakes, mainly in Rodney District.
Flora Composition: In some examples, tī kōuka and other shrubs can be as prevalent as harakeke, creating diverse food sources for indigenous fauna.
Figure 104: Flaxland buffering kahikatea forest in the Wayby Valley.
Table 4.41: Ecosystem Pressures for Flaxland [WL18]
Key Pressures:
Change in Land Use: Increased farming intensity (e.g., transitioning from beef to dairy farming) surrounding the catchment can elevate nutrient levels, promoting species like Isolepis prolifera, pūkio, and raupō, along with pest plants.
Suggested Action: Exclude stock from wetlands and their waters, perform buffer planting when possible to mitigate nutrient flow from adjacent lands.
Draining: Construction of drains can lower soil water levels, making areas more suitable for farming while leading to the decline of wetland plant species.
Suggested Action: Avoid draining of pasture impacting wetlands—monitor water levels and restore hydrology when necessary. Seek expert advice to ensure proper actions are taken and comply with any resource consent requirements.
Pest Plants and Exotic Plants: Non-native pest plants significantly hinder indigenous regeneration.
Suggested Action: Control pest plants to restore native vegetation, emphasizing moisture-tolerant species (e.g., willows) likely to invade wetland interiors. Maintain high canopy cover to minimize future pest plant invasions. Monitor indigenous community development after pest control and stock exclusion to assess if additional planting is required.
Stock Grazing: Grazing and trampling disrupt the regeneration of wetland species.
Suggested Action: Exclude stock by fencing wetland fragments and monitoring conditions of fences regularly. Buffers may be required if indigenous vegetation lacks and pest plants are ongoing threats. Buffer planting should involve harakeke/flax, tī kōuka/cabbage tree, mānuka, and karamū. If management of pressures fails to regenerate key ecosystem components, revegetation may be conducted to restore flaxland areas.
Revegetation Mix for Tāmaki Makaurau / Auckland [WL18]
Table 4.42: Flaxland Revegetation Mix
Species and Characteristics:
Harakeke/Flax (Phormium tenax): Herb, 30 years height: 3m
Pūrei (Carex secta): Sedge, height: 1.5m
Jointed Twig Rush (Machaerina articulata): Sedge, height: 2m
Giant Umbrella Sedge (Cyperus ustulatus): Sedge, height: 1.5m
Pūkio (Carex virgata): Sedge, height: 1m
Mānuka (Leptospermum scoparium): Tall shrub/tree, height: 5m
Tī Kōuka/Cabbage Tree (Cordyline australis): Tall shrub/tree, height: 8m+
Kahikatea (Dacrycarpus dacrydioides): Canopy tree, height: 10m
Kiokio (Blechnum novae-zelandiae): Fern, height: 1m
Baumea (Machaerina rubiginosa): Sedge, height: 1m
Karamū (Coprosma robusta): Tall shrub/tree, height: 6m.
Note: Standing water in this ecosystem type is expected to be shallow and temporary (<0.05m, not overly deep for harakeke).
Raupō Reedland Ecosystem [WL19]
Regional Threat Status: Endangered
Characteristics: Typical of high nutrient wetlands with shallow water, frequently found at the edges of lakes, lagoons, ponds, and river oxbows.
Presence in Tāmaki Makaurau: Large populations located in places such as Te Henga wetland and Kaitoke Swamp, predominantly comprised of raupō, albeit with reduced diversity in upper tiers.
Threats & Pressures: Numerous ecological pressures affecting on-going health outlined in Table 4.43.
Table 4.43: Ecosystem Pressures for Raupō Reedland [WL19]
Key Pressures:
Pest Plants: Non-native species like reed sweet grass, willows, and alligator weed can invade, impacting indigenous plant recruitment.
Suggested Action: Control pest plant species to restore native vegetation. Focus on moisture-tolerant invaders that threaten the interior of the wetlands.
Draining: Drains can reduce soil water levels, making areas more viable for farming and detrimental to wetland plant species.
Suggested Action: Prevent draining efforts that significantly affect nearby wetlands—seek expert guidance on restoring hydrology as necessary.
Stock Grazing: Grazing disrupts the growth of wetland plant species and diminishes indigenous plants, especially in drought conditions.
Suggested Action: Exclude stock by constructing effective fences and monitor them regularly, including appropriate buffer planting where existing native vegetation is minimal.
Change in Land Use: Increasing farming intensity raises nutrient levels, hence promoting monoculture of raupō while reducing biodiversity.
Suggested Action: Prevent stock access, focusing on retaining diversity with buffer plantings, if feasible to filter down nutrients via overland flow.
Revegetation Mix for Raupō Reedland [WL19]
Table 4.44: Revegetation Details
Ingoa Māori / Common Name | Species | Growth Form | Height After 30 Years
Raupō | Typha orientalis | Reed | 3m
Jointed Twig Rush | Machaerina articulata | Sedge | 2m
Pūrua Grass | Bolboschoenus fluviatilis | Sedge | 1.5m
Kuawa/Lake Clubrush | Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani | Sedge | 2m
Pūrei | Carex secta | Sedge | 1.5m
Kuta | Eleocharis sphacelata | Sedge | 1m
Giant Umbrella Sedge | Cyperus ustulatus | Sedge | 1.5m
Pūkio | Carex virgata | Sedge | 1m
Mānuka | Leptospermum scoparium | Tall shrub/tree | 5m
Tī Kōuka/Cabbage Tree | Cordyline australis | Tall shrub/tree | 8m+
Kahikatea | Dacrycarpus dacrydioides | Canopy tree | 10m
Harakeke/Flax | Phormium tenax | Herb | 3m
Karamū | Coprosma robusta | Tall shrub/tree | 6m.
Mānuka should ideally be sourced from a nursery that is accredited under Plant Pass where possible.
Case Study: Raupō Reedland Restoration at Te Rau Pūriri
Location: At the foot of a steep, east-facing hillside, over 5ha in area. Dominated by raupō with patches of Machaerina sedgeland, yet also features areas overtaken by exotic species due to historical grazing by cattle and sheep.
Surroundings: The wetland drains into a nearby channelized watercourse, discharging approximately 200m away. Surrounded by farmland with exotic trees and kānuka.
Project Timeframe: 2019 - ongoing.
Target Ecosystem: Combination of WL19 (rau pō reedland) and WL11 (Machaerina sedgeland).
Ecosystem Pressures at the Site
Presence of pest plants (e.g. kikuyu, arum lily, pampas) and pest animals such as rats, mustelids, and possums. Occasional visits by deer noted.
Proposed Restoration Actions
Stock Exclusion: Enhancing long-term management of pressures through fencing.
Future Proposals: Management of onsite pressures and buffer planting planned for future efforts.
Key Lessons from Restoration Approach
This exemplifies a natural regeneration model rather than rigorous active restoration. In mid-2020, the fencing around the wetland was upgraded to a stronger 7-wire post and batten style to effectively prevent sheep and lamb access.
Benefits of Stock Exclusion: It halts trampling and browsing of indigenous vegetation, restoring water quality in the wetland and Kaipara Harbour by reducing nutrient and sediment contributions from livestock.
Future Monitoring: A pest plant survey is to prioritize future pest control initiatives. Pest animal control is envisioned to benefit native wetland bird populations, particularly matuku/bittern, known to inhabit South Head wetlands.
Revegetation Planning: Reflecting the ongoing monitoring and potential for ecological improvement through buffer planting practices around the wetland and assessing the need for additional plantings to counter pest invasions or increase species diversity based on natural regeneration levels.