Motivation
General theories of motivation
What is motivation?
Motivation is the energization and direction of behavior
Motivation, with regard to energization, is an inner state, need, or desire that gives force to behavior.
Motivation directs behavior towards valued goals and outcomes
Instinct theory and evolutionary psychology
Early psychologists believed that human behavior was biologically rooted in instincts.
Instincts are fixed patterns that are unlearned, universal within a species, and released by specific conditions.
William McDougall: A whole range of human behaviors are instinctually based.
Problems with this theory:
This led to a very long list of human instincts; anything you see people doing could be an instinct.
McDougall’s reasoning was based on tautological, or circular, reasoning
Instinct theories provide a description of human behavior, but fail to provide an explanation of human behavior.
Drive theory
Clark Hull: drive theory focused on four drives: hunger, thirst, sex, and the avoidance of pain. These physiological drives arise in the organism over time and when those drives become operative they create an unpleasant state of tension.
Limitations: drive theory provides no account of behaviors that increase tension.
Arousal theory:
Humans are motivated to achieve and maintain a state of optimal arousal. Provides a reason as to why we seek to increase bodily tension. We tend to prefer activities that are not too easy, but not too difficult.
Incentive theory
Acknowledges the importance of cognition in human motivation
In addition to being pushed by drives and primal challenges, humans are often also pulled by external goals or incentives
An incentive is any stimulus that we associate with a positive outcome
People are motivated when they expect to receive an incentive and when they value a certain incentive
Hierarchy of human needs
Abraham Maslow: proposed a list of basic human needs that must be satisfied before an individual can be self actualized. The needs that are at the base of the pyramid take priority to those at the top.
Physiological needs: basic needs of the organism that are necessary for survival. Things like food, water, oxygen, sleep, and sex.
Safety needs: Once physiological needs are satisfied, people seek safety. Things like steady work, financial security, stability in the home, and a predictable environment.
Social needs: the needs that we experience in relation to others. Things like affiliation and affection, belongingness and love, family ties, and group membership. When these needs are not met, we suffer, feeling lonely, isolated, and alienated.
Esteem needs: needs that we have in relation to our self worth. Things like social status, respect and recognition, and achievement and power. If this need is not met, people tend to feel inferior and unimportant
Self actualization: the need to live up to and realize our fullest potential
Self transcendence: once we are self actualized then we may embrace a need for self*** beyond oneself
Hunger
The biological component:
The stomach (Cannon and Washburn): hunger was triggered by sensations in the stomach. Washburn swallowed a balloon that was partially inflated. The balloon would compress whenever the stomach contracted, at the same time, Washburn would press a button when he felt hungry. The contractions seemed to cause feelings of hunger.
Problems with the theory:
People without stomachs still felt psychologically hungary
Patients with amnesia eat meal after meal even when their stomachs are full.
The brain and hormones:
Scientists have found that the hypothalamus plays a role in hunger.
Psychological influences
Taste preferences: humans tend to prefer sweet and salty tastes. These preferences are genetic and universal
External cues: different aspects of the environment can cue our hunger.
Social cues: people tend to eat more when in the company of others
Eating disorders:
Anorexia nervosa: a disorder marked by an extreme fear of gaining weight. The person with anorexia ignores hunger pains, stops eating, and starves themselves.
Bulimia nervosa: cycles of extreme binge eating followed by self induced vomiting, the use of laxatives, or excessive exercise.
Binge eating disorder: marked by extreme binge eating followed by extreme feelings of guilt, shame, and regret.
Potential causes of eating disorders:
Self appearance dysmorphia
Social pressures
More prevalent in cultures that value slimness
Distorted body image
Sex
Masters and Johnsen: sexual response cycle:
Excitement: an initial stage in which the genitals become engorged with blood.
Plateau: excitement peaks and orgasm seems imminent; breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates increase
Orgasm: rhythmic genital contractions that give rise to sexual release
Resolution: the body returns to its normal, pre-aroused state
Hormones and sexual behavior
Hormones have two effects on human behavior:
They direct the development of male and female sex characteristics
Activate sexual behavior
Estrogen: hormone that affects female sexual behavior; peaks during ovulation. Data suggests sex is 24% more frequent on days around ovulation and women fantasize more about sex around ovulation.
Testosterone: influences male sexual behavior.
Sexual orientation
Origins of homosexuality:
Psychological theories: Aristotle asserted that sexuality is inborn and strengthened by habit. Freud suggested it stems from family dynamics and the over attachment to the same sex parent. Reenforced by same sex friends in childhood. None of which have evidence.
Biological theories: Autopsied people and examined a tiny nucleus in the hypothalamus, in homosexual men, the size of the nucleus was half the size of that i heterosexual men and half the size of that in heterosexual women.
Twin studies: when one twin is homosexual, 52% of identical twins are also homosexual. Between fraternal twins that number drops to 22%. Between adoptive siblings, that number drops to 11%
Belongingness motives
The social animal
Aids in survival: in evolutionary terms, adults who form attachment are more likely to survive and reproduce. In todays terms, married people are less at risk for depression, death, and suicide.
Naturally oriented towards others: infants are responsive to faces, turn their heads towards voices, and imitate others facial expressions. We associate joy with new social interactions.
Baumeister and Leary’s need to belong
The need for affiliation:
Individual differences in needs for affiliation. People who are higher on the scale are more socially active and prefer to be in the contact of others.
Get more stimulation and emotional support
The need for intimacy:
Individual differences in the desire to have close intimate relationships
People with a high need for intimacy are perceived as warm and caring, they listen more, smile more, and tend to be happier and healthier.
Esteem motives
The need for achievement:
A strong desire to accomplish difficult tasks, to outperform others, and to excel.
Tend to work harder, more persistent, innovative, and more future oriented. They crave success more than they fear failure, and they credit success to their own abilities and efforts.
The need for power:
The strong desire to acquire prestige and influence over others
May be more likely to run for political office, and strive for authority.
Motivation at work
Attitudes toward work:
Amy Wrzesniewski
Job: unfulfilling but necessary way to make money
Career: an opportunity to advance from one position to a better one
Calling: a fulfilling and socially useful activity; report the highest satisfaction with their work and personal lives
Flow at work
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi: when our abilities are aligned with the challenges of an activity, we are in a good place called flow. Quality of life increases when people are purposefully engaged. The state of flow exists between the anxiety of being overwhelmed and the apathy of being underwhelmed and bored. Flow is a psychological state marked by intense concentration, immersion, and a loss of time. When we find ourselves in flow, we tend to feel self esteem, competence, and wellbeing among others.