Oceanography Study Notes
Prologue
Introduction to Scientific Inquiry and History of Oceanography
Early Expeditions of the 19th & 20th Centuries
HMS Challenger Expedition
Leader: Charles Wyville Thompson
Duration: December 21, 1872, until May 24, 1876
HMS Challenger Expedition Achievements
Depth Measurements: Conducted at 361 locations
Maximum Depth Discovered: 26,850 feet, found in the Marianas Trench, located in the western Pacific Ocean
Seawater Consistency: Relative abundance of the major component ions of seawater is constant regardless of sample location
Species Discovery: Identified 4,717 new species of marine organisms
Oceanographic Institutions
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
Established: 1903
Transfer: Officially transferred to the University of California in 1912
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Founded: 1930
Funding: Largely financed by a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation
Ocean Science in Modern Times
Definition of Modern Oceanography
Oceanography: The sciences focused on understanding the oceans
Types of Oceanography
Geological Oceanography
Focus: Study of the Earth at the sea’s edge and below its surface, including the history of processes that form the ocean basin
Physical Oceanography
Investigation Areas: Investigates causes and characteristics of water movements such as waves, tides, and their effects on the marine environment
Marine Meteorology
Scope: Study of heat transfer, water cycles, and air-sea interaction
Chemical Oceanography
Studies: Composition, history of ocean water, processes affecting it, and interactions with various elements
Biological Oceanography
Focus: Concerns marine organisms and their relationships with the ocean environment
Marine Engineering
Discipline: Involves the design and planning of equipment and installations for use at sea
Scientific Inquiry
Assumptions of Science:
The natural world is consistent
The natural world is predictable
Goal of Science: To discover patterns in nature and utilize knowledge to make predictions
Hypothesis and Theory
Definitions:
Hypothesis: A possible natural explanation for observations
Theory: A scientific concept supported by a large body of evidence
Scientific Method:
Gather facts through observation
Formulate hypotheses and theories
Scientific Method
Steps to Gain Scientific Knowledge
Recognize a problem
Collect data
Propose a hypothesis
Test the hypothesis
Reexamine the hypothesis – accept, modify, or reject based on the results
Establishing a Theory
Definition of a Scientific Law: A relationship that applies universally without exception under a defined range of conditions
Unexpected Occurrences: Considerations taken into account during scientific inquiry
Chapter 01: The Water Planet
The Significance of Water on Earth
Water Coverage: 71% of Earth’s surface is covered by oceans
Land Coverage: 29% of the surface area consists of land
Continents
Islands
Distribution of Land and Water
Hydrologic Cycle: Visual representation showing the distribution of land and water in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres
Ocean Area and Volume
Ocean Area: Approximately 140 million mi² (362 million km²)
Water Volume: Approximately 1.35 billion km³
The Five Major Ocean Basins
Pacific Ocean
Characteristics:
Largest ocean basin
Holds the greatest volume of water
Has the greatest average depth
Area: 168,723,000 km² (65,143,950 mi²)
Earth's Surface Area Coverage: 33.1%
Ocean Volume: 50.1%
Maximum Depth: 10,911 m (35,797 ft)
Atlantic Ocean
Characteristics:
About half the size of the Pacific
Relatively narrow and third deepest ocean
Extends the furthest distance north and south
Area: 85,133,000 km² (32,869,851 mi²)
Earth's Surface Area Coverage: 16.7%
Ocean Volume: 23.3%
Maximum Depth: 8,486 m (27,841 ft)
Indian Ocean
Characteristics:
Slightly smaller than the Atlantic
Second deepest ocean
Predominantly a Southern Hemisphere body
Area: 70,560,000 km² (27,243,216 mi²)
Earth's Surface Area Coverage: 13.8%
Ocean Volume: 19.8%
Maximum Depth: 7,906 m (25,938 ft)
Southern Ocean
Designation: Described as the