Arizona Indians Past and Present
- Earliest Arizonans: Prehistoric peoples inhabited Arizona around 13,088 years before the Spaniards arrived in 1539.
- Hunter-gatherers: Small roving bands lived in caves, made stone tools, and wore fur clothing.
- Food sources: They hunted, gathered seeds, nuts, berries, cactus fruit, and wild plants.
- Advanced civilizations: They developed large cities with apartment houses, irrigation canals, cotton clothing, and beautiful crafts.
- Mysterious disappearance: Ancient cultures abandoned their homes and arts in the 13th or 14th centuries.
- Modern tribes: Hohokam, Pima, and Anglos replaced the Ancient Ones and restored canals and buildings.
- Native American tribes: Arizona is home to 22 recognized tribes with reservation lands covering a significant area.
- Pleistocene epoch (2 million years ago): Giant glaciers covered the northern hemisphere, causing ocean levels to drop.
- Bering Strait: Land exposed between Siberia and Alaska, allowing migration from east to west.
- 13,000 BCE: Climate warmed, glaciers melted, and Old World travelers expanded across America.
- Ice age Arizona: Well-watered valleys with rich grasses and megafauna (large animals).
- Chipped-stone spear points found in animal skeletons show successful hunting of mammoth, bison, horses, and more.
- Clovis Culture: Extensive discoveries near Clovis, New Mexico, represent one of the earliest prehistoric peoples in North America.
- Double Adobe site: Large elephant-like bones found in southeastern Arizona, but overshadowed by a Roman colony hoax.
- Mammoth bones: Fred and Mark Navarrete discovered mammoth bones near Naco, Arizona, with spear point wounds.
- Pleistocene epoch: San Pedro Valley in Arizona was a wooded area with ponds, supporting herds of prehistoric mammals.
- Clovis sites: San Pedro River Valley has the largest concentration of Clovis sites in North America.
- Changing climate: Southwest gradually warmed and dried out, reaching modern norms by 8,000 BCE.
- Archaic Cultures: Followed the Clovis and Folsom cultures from 7,000 to 2,000 BCE.
- Climate change impact: Warming and drying led to the disappearance of large mammals.
- Possible human contribution: Some researchers suggest that skilled hunters may have contributed to animal extinction.
- Nomadic lifestyle: Archaic peoples were more nomadic, seeking cooler mountains in summer.
- Shift in diet: Relied more on hunting smaller game and collecting plants, nuts, and berries for food.
- Early Farmers: San Pedro phase of prehistoric culture moved north from Mexico to Arizona.
- Three Sisters: Indigenous people grew corn, beans, and squash together for mutual benefits.
- Canal Evidence: Early Farmers dug canals as early as 1200 BCE for irrigation.
- Cultural Development: Cienega phase saw population growth, trade networks, and cotton weaving.
- Ancestral Connection: Early Farmers likely the ancestors of Ancestral Pueblo, Mogollon, and Hohokam people.
- Mogollon: Hunted, gathered nuts and berries in the central highlands of Arizona.
- Hohokam: Developed extensive irrigation canals in southwestern Arizona's Basin and Range region.
- Ancestral Puebloans: Lived in canyons and mesas of the Colorado Plateau, centered in Four Corners area.
- Pitayan and Sinagua: Yuman-speaking people with a nomadic lifestyle and farming near the Colorado River and Flagstaff respectively.
- Cultural Blending: Over time, these ancient cultures blended together and shared techniques and designs.
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- Mogollon settled in villages close to their farming plots, transitioning from hunting and gathering.
- Pit houses: Circular structures covered with upside-down basket frameworks made of sticks and earth.
- Pottery: Mogollon began making pottery around 100 BCE.
- Cultural Center: Mogollon culture was centered in southwestern New Mexico and northern Sonora and Chihuahua.
- Ancestral Connection: Some believe Mogollon are ancestors of modern-day Zuni and upper Rio Grande Puebloan peoples.
- Architecture: Transitioned from pit houses to single-story apartment-like buildings made of river rock and adobe.
- Ceremonies: Spiritual ceremonies held in large rectangular underground rooms called kivas.
- Mimbres Subculture: Known for elaborate geometric pottery designs, often found in burials.
- Decline: Mogollon tradition declined from the 12th to the 14th century.
- Hohokam lived in the desert along the Salt and Gila Rivers.
- They were skilled engineers, building irrigation ditches to divert water for farming.
- Their early pit houses evolved into aboveground mud houses and multistory apartment complexes.
- Notable characteristics: irrigation canals, ball courts, ceremonial mounds, and acid-etched jewelry.
- They learned irrigation and ball courts from trade with Mexico, but acid-etched jewelry was unique to them.
- Hohokam were skilled desert farmers who built an impressive irrigation network.
- Their canals, dams, and control gates diverted river water to their crops.
- The system covered hundreds of miles and rivaled those in ancient Near East, Egypt, and China.
- Snaketown was the largest urban center with over 600 inhabitants in 1050 CE.
- They cultivated crops like cotton, tobacco, maize, beans, squash, and harvested wild plants.
- Artisans developed skills in pottery and seashell jewelry with turquoise inlay using acid etching.
- Acid etching involved coating shells with resin, incising patterns, and using weak acetic acid to create raised patterns.
- The Hohokam had successful trade routes with central Mexico.
- They exchanged cotton cloth and jewelry for seashells, parrots, copper bells, and pottery.
- Trade was most active between 800 and 1,000 CE.
- Hohokam origin is debated: Did they come from Mexico or learn from their southern neighbors?
- Evidence suggests Early Farmers from Mexico arrived after 1200 BCE.
- Ball courts and ceremonial mounds found in many Arizona sites show Mexican influence.
- Walls coated with clay, with space for hundreds of spectators.
- Rubber balls similar to those used in Mexican ball courts discovered.
- Earthen mounds up to 100 feet high possibly used for ceremonial dances.
- After 1200 CE, Hohokam stopped making stone vessels, clay figurines, and ball courts.
- Environmental and social disasters led to abandonment, leaving behind ruins and canals.
- Patayan were desert-dwelling Native Americans, culturally similar to the Hohokam.
- They lived in parts of Arizona, California, and Baja California from 700 to 1550 CE.
- Evidence of their lives found along the Colorado River Valley, including the Grand Canyon.
- Harsh desert climate limited large building projects, and they were primarily nomadic.
- Their sites were easily destroyed by floods and shifting river channels.
- They may have encountered Spanish conquistadors in 1540.
- Patayan practiced floodplain agriculture, hunted with stone tools, and cremated their dead.
- They built long pit houses with a linear series of rooms, some used for ceremonies or storage.
- Ancestral Puebloans, also known as "Anasazi," were cliff dwellers in the Southwest.
- They preferred to be called "Ancestral Puebloans" by their descendants.
- They lived in apartment-like dwellings and farming communities.
- Despite similarities, they had differences in language and philosophy.
- They started as archaic foragers and later transitioned to pit house villages and farming.
- This period is known as the "Basket Maker" stage before pottery making.
- The population grew between 700 and 1100 BCE due to rainfall, innovations, and migration.
- Ancestral Puebloans became skilled in agriculture, art, astronomy, and architecture.
- Mesa Verde in Southwest Colorado had over 200 rooms and 24 kivas.
- They had a complex road system and lookout towers to protect their territory.
- Chaco Canyon pueblos were built before those in Canyon de Chelly, Keet Seel, and Betatakin.
- The Ancestral Puebloans migrated from their compounds between 1100 and 1300 CE.
- Possible reasons include climate change, drought, erosion, salination, and enemies.
- They likely merged with the Hopi and Pueblo cultures in Arizona and New Mexico.
- Sinagua people lived in the lands near the Sinagua Mountains from 500 to 1300 CE.
- They may have migrated from western Arizona and settled around Flagstaff and the Verde River.
- The Sinagua started with pit houses and later developed more advanced architecture.
- The eruption of Sunset Crater between 1064 and 1067 caused the Sinagua to migrate south.
- They returned after a few years, benefiting from the ash's minerals for agriculture.
- The Sinagua expanded their social and trade network, incorporating influences from various cultures.
- They adopted Mogollon ceramics, Mayan ball courts, Ancestral Puebloan masonry, and imported parrots and copper bells from Mexico.
- Like other prehistoric cultures, the Sinagua abandoned their Sunset Crater area villages due to diminishing rainfall.
- They moved south and built Montezuma's Castle, possibly also migrating east and south into New Mexico.
- The Sinagua left remarkable ruins, including Montezuma Castle, Tuzigoot, Walnut Canyon, Wupatki, and Sunset Crater.
The Salado culture, living in the Tonto Basin, had unique adaptations compared to other cultures:
- They had polychrome pottery designs and adobe-walled pueblos mixed with river rock.
- Unlike the Hohokam, they buried their dead instead of cremating them.
- They irrigated their fields and supplemented their food supply through hunting and gathering.
- Evidence of trade with Californian and Mexican cultures is seen through shell artifacts and macaw feathers.
Arizona's unique landscape and climate have made it an ideal place for studying prehistoric wildlife and ancient cultures:
- The dry climate prevents materials from decaying, preserving evidence for archaeologists.
- The lack of modern human population allows for the preservation of dinosaur graveyards and prehistoric cities.
- Arizona became a preeminent research center for archaeology and anthropology in the late 19th century.
- Although prehistoric cultures disappeared, Arizona offered more clues and places to explore.
- The remote and difficult landscape of Arizona benefited modern Arizona Indians, allowing them to maintain their traditional ways.
The twenty-two recognized tribes in Arizona have blended and adapted, creating their own distinct identities:
- It's difficult to pinpoint where one tribe ends and another begins, as they have intertwined.
- Tribes are defined by language, but their distinctions and identities change over time.
- Think of tribes like ocean currents, identifiable at their center but blending with the surrounding sea.
- This book focuses on larger, more influential tribes, but we'll learn about others along the way.
- We'll explore the lives, beliefs, and values of modern-era Native Americans before European arrival.
The Hopi people have preserved their ancient traditions for centuries:
- The sky city pueblos on First, Second, and Third Mesa have remained largely unchanged.
- Their way of life has persisted since the visit of Pedro de Tovar in 1540 and likely for 500 years before that.
- The Hopi culture has maintained the same dwelling styles, spiritual ceremonies, and government.
- "Hopi" translates to "The Peaceful People," reflecting their peaceful and harmonious nature.
- Hopi culture is matrilineal, with children belonging to their mother's clan.
- Women from the father's clan suggest names for the children, with the final choice made by the parents.
- The Hopi have ancient stories, including one about a great flood, making them one of the oldest documented cultures.
- Their deep religious beliefs guide them to live by the principles of peace and goodwill.
Nampeyo, a Hopi-Tewa potter, played a significant role in American history:
- Despite the Hopi people's reserve and modesty, Nampeyo became one of the most renowned potters.
- The Hopi-Tewa have a slightly different language and culture from the original Hopi culture.
- The Tewa ancestors sought refuge among the Tewa neighbors and later settled on First Mesa.
- Nampeyo's Tewa name, Num-pa-yu, means "snake that does not bite."
- Her Hopi grandmother taught her pottery-making, and she collected ancient Sik-yatki pottery shards.
- In her teens, she sold her pottery at a trading post and later experimented to recreate ancient Sikyatki pottery.
- Nampeyo and her husband Lesou started the "Sikyatki Revival" by replicating the ancient designs.
- Their creations became highly sought after, and Nampeyo shared her techniques with other First Mesa potters.
- Each Hopi village governs itself independently, but the Hopi Tribal Council sets tribal laws and policies.
- Hopis strive for reverence and respect for all things, and their spiritual ceremonies benefit the world.
- Hopi ceremonies follow the lunar calendar, and Christian missionaries have had less impact on Hopi spirituality.
- Katsinam, also known as Kachinas, are central to Hopi spirituality and are represented by ceremonial dancers and wooden dolls.
- Katsinam can represent elements, qualities, concepts, or natural phenomena and are used to teach the Hopi way of life.
- Hopis have perfected "dry farming" techniques, including creating wind breakers and using special planting methods.
- Corn has a central role in Hopi spiritual beliefs and ceremonies.
- Approximately 12,000 Hopis live on a reservation of about 2,438 square miles surrounded by the Navajo Reservation.
- Apache culture is known worldwide and they are both feared and revered for their courage and guerrilla warfare.
- The name "Apache" was given to them by the Zuni Indians, who called them enemies.
- The Apache refer to themselves as "Indeh," meaning "the People."
- They migrated from Texas to New Mexico and Arizona due to conflicts with Kiowas and Comanches.
- The Apache did not have a consolidated tribe with a single chief, but were organized into regional bands.
- Europeans mistakenly assumed that all Native American groups had consolidated governments.
- The largest Apache group was the regional band, consisting of extended families of up to 200 people.
- Europeans divided the Apache into different groups such as White Mountain, Chiricahua, Pinal, and Tonto.
- Navajo, also known as Diné, settled near Pueblo villages and learned farming techniques from them.
- The Navajo Nation is a semiautonomous Native American homeland spanning 26,000 square miles.
- The Navajo Nation has the largest land area of any U.S. tribe and is home to approximately 356,890 Diné.
- The seat of government is Window Rock, located on the Arizona/New Mexico border.
- Akimel O'odham, or the Pimas, lived along the Gila River, south of Phoenix.
- They restored Hohokam irrigation canals and grew crops like beans, corn, and squash.
- The Pimas grew cotton, but not the famous "Pima Cotton" variety.
- Pima trade routes extended to Colorado, the Pacific coast, and Mexico.
- Maricopas settled next to the Pimas to escape warring tribes.
- The Pimas had a constant water supply and lived in large villages year-round.
- Tohono O'odham, the Desert People, are closely related to the Pima and also speak Uto-Aztecan.
- Pimas and Tohono O'odham would help each other during harvest time, but the Gila River had more water than the Santa Cruz.
- Tohono O'odham are known for their beautifully designed basketry, like the famous "man in the maze."
- They lived in mountain foothills in winter near springs and farmed in desert valleys in summer.
- Today, people in Arizona reverse the cycle, staying on the desert floor in winter and going to the mountains in summer.
- Tohono O'odham live around Tucson, Sells, Gila Bend, and some still live in northern Mexico.
- The Yaqui, also known as Yoeme, are a Uto-Aztecan group from the Rio Yaqui Valley in Sonora, Mexico.
- They have communities in Mexican states like Chihuahua, Durango, and also in California, Texas, Nevada, and Arizona.
- The Yaquis fought against Spanish conquistadors in the 16th century and continued their struggle for independence for 400 years.
- They faced massacres, land confiscation, and slavery, with many Yaquis dying from starvation, overwork, and disease.
- In the early 1900s, many Yaquis migrated to Tucson to work in citrus groves and continued their fight with Mexico.
- A skirmish in 1918 between Yaquis and the U.S. Army's Buffalo Soldiers is considered the final combat in the American Indian Wars.
- Persecuted Yaquis settled in Tucson and Phoenix, working as migrant farm laborers.
- In the 1960s, Yaqui spiritual leader Anselmo Valencia Tori sought help from anthropologists to secure land for the tribe.
- The Pai people consist of the Hualapai, Havasupai, and Yavapai tribes in Arizona.
- The Hualapai, also known as Walapai, were hunter-gatherers along the Colorado River and the western edge of the Grand Canyon since 600 CE.
- The Havasupai, "people of the blue green waters," get their name from the turquoise and sky-blue waters of Havasu Creek in the Grand Canyon.
- The Yavapai, or "Sun People," have lands in west central Arizona and blended with the Tonto Apaches to form the Yavapai-Apache group.
- Water has always played a significant role in Arizona's history, especially along the Colorado River.
- The Quechan/Yuma tribe is the largest among the Yuman linguistic stock.
- They build their homes with rectangular pole frames covered in sand and mud to keep off the heat.
- Pre-European Yumas lived in bands of around 125 people.
- They formed smaller family groups for most of the year due to food scarcity.
- The Yumas were encountered by Spanish conquistadors.
- They operated a successful ferry business during the California Gold Rush.
- Mojave people lived along the Colorado River
- One of the largest tribes of the Yuma language base
- Known for artistic tattoos made with cactus spines and blue dye
- Created rafts instead of canoes
- Dwellings were low with walls supported by posts and roofed with brush
- Relied on flood tides for crops and major food sources included corn, pumpkins, melons, beans, piñon nuts, and fish
- Tribal population decreased over time
- Today, Mojaves are part of the Colorado Indian tribes in Arizona
- Ak-Chin
- Kaibab-Paiute
- Pee Posh
- Southern Paiute
- Many more tribes in Arizona
- Diversity and scope of native peoples in Arizona