US History - Texas, California, and Manifest Destiny
Westward Expansion and Manifest Destiny
The United States acquired Texas and California through westward expansion.
Manifest Destiny
Journalist John O'Sullivan coined the phrase "manifest destiny."
Manifest destiny described America's belief that it had a God-given right to take over all the land between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
This expansion disregarded the rights and claims of Native Americans, Mexicans, French fur trappers, and the natural inhabitants of the land.
Economic factors played a significant role in American expansion, aligning with Jefferson's ideas of the empire of liberty.
The discussion on slavery is deferred, mirroring the approach of American politicians in the 19th century.
Oregon Trail
By 1846, approximately 300,000 people had traveled west, immortalized by the Oregon Trail game.
The Oregon Trail game, though inaccurate in some aspects, accurately depicts the prevalence of dysentery and cholera.
Oregon was jointly controlled by the U.S. and Britain, contributing to westward expansion.
Territorial Expansion
Northern Mexico included present-day Texas, Arizona, Utah, Nevada, New Mexico, and California.
New Mexico and California were the primary areas with significant settlements.
New Mexico had about 30,000 Mexican residents, while California had around 3,500.
In both regions, Native Americans outnumbered the Mexican population.
Texas
After Mexico gained independence, there were only around 2,000 Tejanos in Texas.
To encourage economic development, the Mexican government granted land to Moses Austin.
Stephen Austin sold smaller parcels of land, attracting around 7,000 American settlers.
The influx of Americans made Mexico uneasy, leading to the annulment of land contracts and a ban on further immigration.
Americans demanded greater autonomy and the right to use slave labor, despite slavery being abolished in Mexico.
Mexican General Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana sought to assert control over the territory, which led to a revolt for independence.
On March 13, 1836, Santa Ana defeated American defenders at the Alamo, killing approximately 187 Americans.
The Texas rebels defeated Santa Ana at the Battle of San Jacinto, resulting in Mexico recognizing Texas’s independence.
Texas became the Lone Star Republic and sought annexation by the United States.
In 1837, Texas requested union, but the request was delayed due to concerns about disrupting the balance of power in the Senate with the addition of another slave state.
Presidents Jackson and Van Buren avoided the Texas issue, while Martin Van Buren opposed annexation due to the potential of provoking a war.
James K. Polk won the presidential election due to the support of southern Democrats and his pro-slavery stance.
Texas was annexed by Congress in March 1845, just before Polk took office.
Congress divided Oregon at the 49th Parallel to maintain the balance between slave and free states in the Senate.
Acquisition of California
President James K. Polk aimed to acquire California from Mexico, but Mexico refused to sell.
Polk sent troops under Zachary Taylor into a disputed border region, leading to clashes between American and Mexican forces.
Polk claimed that Mexicans had "shed blood upon American soil" to justify declaring war.
The majority of Americans initially supported the war.
The Mexican-American War was the first war fought primarily on foreign soil.
Henry David Thoreau was jailed for refusing to pay taxes in protest of the war and wrote "On Civil Disobedience."
Abraham Lincoln criticized the increase in executive power under Polk that allowed the president to invade a neighboring country.
Santa Ana’s army was defeated in February 1847, but Mexico did not yield.
Winfield Scott captured Mexico City in September, leading to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848.
Mexico recognized the annexation of Texas and ceded California and other territories.
The U.S. paid Mexico $15 million and agreed to relinquish claims to expansion beyond Texas.
Post-Treaty Challenges
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo brought 175,000 Spanish-speaking Mexicans and 50,000 Native Americans under U.S. jurisdiction.
Mexicans were viewed as inferior to Anglo-Saxons, despite the treaty granting legal and property rights to Spanish-descended Mexican male citizens.
Anti-Catholic and anti-immigrant sentiment (nativism) was rising in the Eastern U.S., embodied by the American Party (Know-Nothings).
In California, the population increased significantly due to the discovery of gold in 1848.
By 1852, the non-Indian Californian population had risen from 15,000 to 200,000, reaching 360,000 before the Civil War.
Approximately 25,000 Chinese migrants, predominantly contract workers, migrated to California.
Women migrated to California to work in various professions, including restaurants, laundry services, and prostitution. The male-to-female ratio in California in 1860 was three to one.
The California constitution of 1850 limited civil participation to whites, excluding Asians, Black people, and Native Americans from voting or testifying in court.
Native Americans were displaced from their land if it contained mineral resources, and their orphaned children were sold as slaves.
The Native American population in California declined from 150,000 to 30,000 between 1848 and 1860.
Free Soil Party and Compromise of 1850
The status of California as a free or slave state was unclear due to the Missouri Compromise line.
The Free Soil Party formed in 1848, advocating for limiting slavery's expansion to preserve opportunities for white individuals.
Martin Van Buren was nominated for president by the Free Soil Party, splitting the Northern vote and allowing Zachary Taylor to win.
In 1850, California applied for admission into the Union as a free state, causing Southern states to express concern because it would shift the balance of power.
Henry Clay brokered the Compromise of 1850, which consisted of four main points:
California was admitted as a free state.
The slave trade was outlawed in Washington D.C.
A new harsh Fugitive Slave Law was enacted.
Popular sovereignty allowed residents of the remaining territories to decide on the issue of slavery.
The Compromise of 1850 highlighted the tyranny of the majority and averted a greater crisis for a decade.
Ralph Waldo Emerson predicted that acquiring part of Mexico would be like "swallowing arsenic," a slow-acting poison.
Civil War - Causes
Slavery as the Central Issue
The Civil War was caused by slavery, despite discussions of states’ rights and differing economic systems.
The election of Abraham Lincoln and its impact on slavery were critical factors.
Fugitive Slave Law
The Fugitive Slave Law required citizens to turn in anyone they knew to be a slave to authorities.
It forced Northerners to enforce a law that they found abhorrent.
Free people of color were at risk of being sent into slavery.
Many people of color moved to Canada, challenging the idea of American freedom.
The Fugitive Slave Law convinced some Northerners that the government was controlled by a “slave power.”
Railroads and the Kansas-Nebraska Act
Railroads facilitated cheaper and more efficient shipping and travel.
Stephen Douglas advocated for a transcontinental railroad, hoping it would unify the Union and benefit Illinois.
The Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) formalized popular sovereignty, allowing white residents to decide on slavery.
The Act effectively repealed the Missouri Compromise, leading to violence in Kansas and the creation of the Republican Party.
Slave Power Conspiracy
The Kansas-Nebraska Act was seen as evidence that Congress was controlled by a pro-slavery group.
Despite the North’s larger population and congressional representation, Congress passed laws extending the power of slave states.
Northerners saw the extension of slavery as a threat to their economic interests.
People wanted the Western territories to be available for white people to become self-sufficient farmers.
Political Developments
The Republican Party, dedicated to stopping the extension of slavery, gained support in the North and West.
In 1856, Republican John C. Fremont lost to Democrat James Buchanan, who had avoided taking a stance on slavery.
The Kansas elections were fraudulent that led to violence and the murder of an entire family by John Brown.
Kansas passed two constitutions and eventually joined the U.S. as a free state in 1861.
Dred Scott Decision
In 1857, the Supreme Court ruled that Dred Scott was still a slave, even after living in free territories.
Chief Justice Roger B. Taney stated that black people had no rights that white men were bound to respect.
The decision meant that slaves could be taken to any state and still be considered slaves, nullifying the idea of free states.
The ruling convinced many Northerners that the government was controlled by the slave power.
John Brown's Raid
In 1859, John Brown led a raid on the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, hoping to arm slaves and incite a rebellion.
The raid failed, and Brown was captured and executed, becoming a martyr for the abolitionist cause.
Election of 1860
In 1860, Abraham Lincoln was elected president, despite receiving zero votes in nine Southern states.
The Democratic Party was divided.
Lincoln’s election led to Southern states seceding from the Union.
Southern states formed the Confederate States of America and the Civil War began when Southern troops attacked Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861.
Underlying Causes
The Dred Scott decision highlighted the failure of the U.S. to recognize the rights of black Americans as inalienable.
This failure ultimately made the Civil War inevitable.
Civil War - Strategies and Outcomes
Basic Facts About the American Civil War
The American Civil War occurred from 1861 to 1865, during the presidency of Abraham Lincoln.
The Union, also known as the North, fought against the Confederate States of America, or the South.
The Union was symbolized by the color blue, while the Confederates were symbolized by gray.
Casualty estimates ranged from 680,000 to 700,000 deaths, with recent estimates raising it to around 1,480,000 total casualties
The Civil War was deadlier for Americans than the American Revolution, World War I, World War II, and Vietnam combined.
Causes of the War
Historians and figures like Lincoln recognized slavery as the central cause.
Some argue the war was about agriculture versus industry or states' rights.
The Confederate government implemented conscription, national taxes, a national currency, and a bureaucracy of 70,000 people.
Perspectives and Justifications
Lincoln initially downplayed the slavery issue, focusing on preserving the Union.
Both sides invoked religion to justify their cause.
Ordinary soldiers had various reasons for fighting, such as social pressure and personal motivations.
Advantages of the Union
The Union had a larger population of approximately 22 million people, compared to 9 million in the South.
The North manufactured over 90% of America's goods, with significantly higher output in textiles, shoes, iron, and firearms.
The North had 20,000 miles of railroad compared to the South's 10,000 miles, facilitating the movement of troops and resources.
The Union enlisted over 2 million men, while the Confederacy enlisted 900,000.
Northern agriculture was more productive due to greater mechanization.
The South had better military leaders, such as Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson.
Union Strategy
Confederacy had to create a nation and build unity among people committed to state autonomy.
Conflict existed with the class system as ruling class often was exempted from fighting.
The Confederacy had to outlast the North to force recognition of their independence.
A war of attrition would have depleted the South's resources quicker than the North's.
Union Generals: Grant
Ulysses S. Grant and William Sherman adopted the goal to systematically destroy his opponent's resources which made Grant one of the first of truly modern generals.
Mid-War Challenges for the Union
Union adoption of Grant’s strategy took three years; Southern victories may have forced Union to give in.
Despite advantages, Northern motivation waned due to heavy losses.
Southern soldiers believed they were fighting for their freedom and rights
Turning Points in the Civil War
July 1863:
Union General Grant captured Vicksburg, Mississippi, gaining control of the lower Mississippi River.
The Battle of Gettysburg occurred in Pennsylvania, marking the furthest major offensive by the Confederacy in the North.
August 1864:
Union General Sherman took Atlanta, a railroad hub and manufacturing center.
Lincoln won reelection due to the capture of Atlanta that allowed him to win the election.
McClellan was not committed to ending the war with the Union's victory as president.
Photodocumentation
Matthew Brady documented the Civil War by creating 10,000 images.
Photographs and written accounts highlighted the war's impact with battles and aftermaths, changing people's perspectives.
War and A New Nation
The war created new nations focused on embracing modern ideas of organization and government.
The North had the federalist vision that became dominant after the Civil War, prioritizing industrialization.