Unit 3: Development and Learning

Learning Objectives & Essential Knowledge

Topic 3.1: Themes and Methods in Developmental Psychology

3.1.A Enduring Themes in Developmental Psychology

  • Developmental Psychology: Study of how humans grow and change over time.

  • Key Themes:

    • Stability and Change: Which traits are consistent, and which evolve?

    • Nature vs. Nurture: How do genetics and environment interact?

    • Continuous vs. Discontinuous Development: Gradual growth vs. stage-like shifts.

3.1.B Research Methods

  • Cross-Sectional Research: Examines different age groups at one time; efficient but prone to cohort effects.

  • Longitudinal Research: Tracks the same individuals over time; reveals changes but is time-intensive and costly.

Topic 3.2: Physical Development Across the Lifespan

3.2.A Prenatal Development

  • Influential Factors:

    • Teratogens: Harmful agents (e.g., alcohol, drugs) affecting fetal development.

    • Maternal Illnesses: Can lead to complications (e.g., rubella).

    • Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): Resulting in cognitive/physical impairments.

    • Genetic Mutations: Influence susceptibility to diseases and disorders.

3.2.B Infancy and Childhood

  • Development Milestones:

    • Gross Motor Development: Large muscle activities like walking.

    • Infant Reflexes: Rooting, grasping.

    • Depth Perception: Studied using the visual cliff experiment.

    • Sensitive/Critical Periods: Optimal times for learning specific skills (e.g., language).

    • Key Terms: Imprinting, Habituation, Maturation.

3.2.C Adolescence

  • Major Changes:

    • Puberty: Development of primary (reproductive organs) and secondary sex characteristics (e.g., body hair).

    • Menarche (first menstruation) and spermarche (first ejaculation).

3.2.D Adulthood

  • Physical Changes:

    • Leveling and Declining: E.g., sensory acuity declines.

    • Menopause: End of menstrual cycle; hormonal changes.

Topic 3.3: Gender and Sexual Orientation

3.3.A Sex and Gender in Development

  • Sex: Biological differences.

  • Gender: Socially constructed roles.

  • Key Concepts:

    • Gender Roles, Gender Identity.

    • Social Learning Theory: Gender behavior learned via observation and imitation.

    • Androgyny: Blending masculine and feminine traits.

    • Social Scripts: Cultural guidelines for behavior.

Topic 3.4: Cognitive Development Across the Lifespan

3.4.A Theories of Cognitive Development

  • Piaget’s Stages:

    1. Sensorimotor: Object permanence develops.

    2. Preoperational: Egocentrism; lack of conservation.

    3. Concrete Operational: Logical thinking about concrete events; conservation achieved.

    4. Formal Operational: Abstract reasoning.

  • Vygotsky’s Theory: Emphasized social context; introduced scaffolding and Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).

  • Adult Cognition:

    • Crystallized Intelligence: Knowledge from experience; stable or grows.

    • Dementia: Decline in cognitive abilities.

Topic 3.5: Communication and Language Development

3.5.A Language Components

  • Key Terms:

    • Phonemes: Smallest sound units.

    • Morphemes: Smallest meaning units.

    • Grammar, Syntax, Semantics.

    • Universal Grammar: Noam Chomsky’s theory of innate language ability.

3.5.B Language Development Stages

  • Stages:

    • Cooing → Babbling → One-Word Stage → Two-Word Stage → Telegraphic Speech.

    • Overgeneralization: Applying grammar rules incorrectly (e.g., "goed").

  • Brain Areas:

    • Broca’s Area: Speech production.

    • Wernicke’s Area: Language comprehension.

Topic 3.6: Social-Emotional Development Across the Lifespan

3.6.A Social Development

  • Theories and Factors:

    • Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner): Development influenced by overlapping systems (microsystem, macrosystem, etc.).

    • Attachment Styles: Secure vs. insecure (avoidant, anxious, disorganized).

    • Parenting Styles: Authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, neglectful.

  • Key Concepts:

    • Strange Situation, Separation Anxiety, Basic Trust.

    • Imaginary Audience: Adolescents’ belief they are the focus of others’ attention.

    • Social Clock: Cultural timeline for life events.

    • Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs): Impact long-term development.

Topic 3.7: Classical Conditioning

3.7.A Behavioral Perspective

  • Classical Conditioning: Associating stimuli to elicit responses.

    • Key Processes: Acquisition, Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery, Generalization, Discrimination.

    • Key Figures: Pavlov (dog experiments).

    • Applications: Taste aversion, Counterconditioning.

Topic 3.8: Operant Conditioning

3.8.A Behavioral Principles

  • Operant Conditioning: Behavior influenced by consequences.

    • Key Concepts: Reinforcement (positive/negative), Punishment (positive/negative).

    • Schedules of Reinforcement: Continuous vs. partial (fixed/variable ratio or interval).

    • Applications: Shaping, Learned Helplessness.

    • Key Figure: B.F. Skinner (Skinner Box).

Topic 3.9: Social, Cognitive, and Neurological Factors in Learning

3.9.A Social Learning Theory

  • Learning through observation (Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment).

  • Key Concepts: Modeling, Mirror Neurons, Prosocial Behavior.

3.9.B Cognitive Learning

  • Insight Learning: Sudden realization of a solution.

  • Latent Learning: Learning that becomes evident only when needed.

  • Cognitive Maps: Mental representations of spatial environments.