Bio 1103 final

UNIT 1: ATOMS & MOLECULES

Common Chemical Elements in the Body

  • Most common elements: Oxygen (O), Hydrogen (H), Carbon (C), Nitrogen (N).

  • Forms: Present in proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and water.

Key Definitions

  • Atom: The smallest unit of an element that retains its physical and chemical properties.

  • Ion: An atom with a positive or negative charge due to loss or gain of electrons.

  • Element: A pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances.

  • Molecule: A substance formed by two or more atoms joined together.

  • Compound: A substance that consists of atoms from two or more different elements.

UNIT 2: WATER CHEMISTRY

Functions of Water in the Body

  • Lubrication and cushioning of joints.

  • Regulates body temperature.

  • Acts as a universal solvent.

Water Molecule Interaction

  • Draw a water molecule showing its covalent bonds with two other water molecules.

  • Discuss hydrogen bonds formed between a hydrogen atom of one molecule and the oxygen atom of another.

UNIT 3: BIOCHEMISTRY

Formation and Breakdown of Lactose

  • Chemical reaction for lactose formation: Join galactose and glucose via dehydration synthesis.

  • Opposite reaction (hydrolysis): Lactose is broken down into glucose and galactose by adding water, breaking glycosidic bonds.

Uses of Carbohydrates

  • Source of energy and structural components in the body.

  • Sources include monosaccharides (simple sugars) and polysaccharides (starches, glycogen).

Major Lipids and Their Functions

  • Triglycerides: Most common dietary lipid used for energy storage.

  • Phospholipids: Form cell membranes (phospholipid bilayer).

  • Steroids: Include cholesterol, important for cell membrane fluidity and hormone production.

UNIT 4: CELL STRUCTURE

Anatomy of a Cell

  • Cytoplasm: The fluid interior of a cell where organelles are located.

  • Plasma Membrane: Protective boundary that regulates what enters/exits the cell.

  • Nucleus: Contains DNA and regulates cellular activities.

Major Cellular Components

  • Integral Proteins: Transport molecules across the membrane.

  • Peripheral Proteins: Act as receptors and enzymes.

  • Cholesterol: Adds fluidity to the membrane.

  • Carbohydrates: Identify and mark cells.

UNIT 5: TRANSPORT PROCESSES

Active vs. Passive Transport

  • Active Transport: Requires energy (ATP) to move substances against their concentration gradient.

  • Passive Transport: Does not require energy and moves substances down their concentration gradient (e.g., diffusion, osmosis).

Points of Transport

  • Discuss transport processes for CO2, Cl-, fructose, and water.

  • Cl- needs protein channels due to its charged nature.

UNIT 6: TISSUE STRUCTURE

Definitions

  • Tissue: A group of similar cells performing a specific function.

  • Embryonic Tissue: Malignant function and structure.

Types of Tissues and Functions

  • Epithelial Tissue: Covers body surfaces, lines cavities, and forms glands.

  • Connective Tissue: Supports, binds, and protects other tissues.

  • Muscle Tissue: Responsible for movement (skeletal, smooth, cardiac).

UNIT 7: NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous Pathways and Components

  • List different types of neurons (sensory, motor, interneurons) and their functions.

  • Describe the autonomic and somatic nervous systems in relation to voluntary and involuntary control.

Neurotransmitter Function

  • Discuss neurotransmitter role in signaling between neurons and muscles.

UNIT 8: SENSORY SYSTEMS

Mechanism of Sensation

  • Outline the pathways for taste (gustatory) and smell (olfactory) sensory processing.

  • Describe the roles and functions of various sensory receptors, including photoreceptors in the eye.

UNIT 9: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Tissue Composition

  • Discuss the layers of skin: Epidermis, Dermis, Hypodermis, and their respective functions.

Skin Functions

  • Protection, thermoregulation, sensation, etc.

UNIT 10: MUSCLE ANATOMY & FUNCTION

Muscle Types

  • Skeletal Muscle: Voluntary, striated, and multinucleated.

  • Cardiac Muscle: Involuntary, striated, branched fibers, interconnected.

  • Smooth Muscle: Involuntary, non-striated, spindle-shaped.

Muscle Contraction Mechanism

  • Explain phases of muscle contraction including excitation, contraction, and relaxation.

Muscle Physiology Concepts

  • Muscle tone, effects of calcium and ATP on muscle contraction.

UNIT 1: ATOMS & MOLECULES

Common Chemical Elements in the Body

  • Most common elements: Oxygen (O), Hydrogen (H), Carbon (C), Nitrogen (N).

  • Forms: These elements are primarily found in various biological molecules, including proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and water which constitute the majority of the human body's mass.

Key Definitions

  • Atom: The smallest unit of an element that retains all the physical and chemical properties of that element. Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

  • Ion: An atom that has gained or lost one or more electrons, resulting in a net charge (positive for cations, negative for anions).

  • Element: A pure chemical substance that consists of one type of atom and cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means. Each element is defined by its atomic number, which represents the number of protons in its nucleus.

  • Molecule: A group of two or more atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound. Molecules can be composed of the same or different elements.

  • Compound: A substance formed when two or more different elements are chemically bonded together in a fixed ratio. Compounds exhibit properties that differ from their constituent elements.

UNIT 2: WATER CHEMISTRY

Functions of Water in the Body

  • Lubrication and cushioning of joints: Water helps to keep joints well-lubricated, preventing friction and wear during movement, and acts as a cushion to protect against impact.

  • Regulates body temperature: Through processes like sweating and respiration, water helps to dissipate heat, thus maintaining a stable internal temperature critical for enzymatic reactions and overall homeostasis.

  • Acts as a universal solvent: Water's polarity allows it to dissolve a wide range of substances, making it essential for biochemical reactions, nutrient transport, and waste removal within the body.

Water Molecule Interaction

  • Diagram a water molecule displaying its covalent bonds between one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms.

  • Discuss hydrogen bonds formed between a hydrogen atom in one water molecule and the oxygen atom in another, contributing to water's unique properties like cohesion and high specific heat.

UNIT 3: BIOCHEMISTRY

Formation and Breakdown of Lactose

  • Chemical reaction for lactose formation: Lactose is formed by joining the monosaccharides galactose and glucose through a dehydration synthesis reaction, which releases a water molecule during bond formation.

  • Opposite reaction (hydrolysis): The breakdown of lactose into glucose and galactose occurs by hydrolysis, which involves the addition of water to cleave the glycosidic bond.

Uses of Carbohydrates

  • Source of energy and structural components: Carbohydrates are essential for energy production and storage, as well as providing structural integrity to cells, particularly in plant cells through cellulose.

  • Sources include: Monosaccharides (simple sugars) such as glucose and fructose, as well as polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates) including starches and glycogen, which are crucial for energy metabolism.

Major Lipids and Their Functions

  • Triglycerides: The most common dietary lipid, primarily composed of glycerol and three fatty acids, serving as a major form of energy storage.

  • Phospholipids: These lipids form the basis of cell membranes, creating a bilayer that provides structural support and regulates the movement of substances in and out of cells.

  • Steroids: This category includes cholesterol, which is vital for maintaining membrane fluidity and serves as a precursor for various hormones involved in physiological regulation.

UNIT 4: CELL STRUCTURE

Anatomy of a Cell

  • Cytoplasm: The thick fluid that fills the interior of a cell, providing a medium for biochemical reactions and housing organelles.

  • Plasma Membrane: A selectively permeable barrier that protects the cell’s internal environment and controls the passage of materials in and out of the cell.

  • Nucleus: The command center of the cell, containing the majority of the cell's genetic material (DNA) and serving as the site of gene expression regulation.

Major Cellular Components

  • Integral Proteins: Proteins embedded in the plasma membrane that facilitate the transport of molecules across the membrane.

  • Peripheral Proteins: Loosely attached to the exterior or interior surfaces of the membrane, acting as receptors for signaling molecules or as enzymes to catalyze reactions.

  • Cholesterol: Interspersed within the phospholipid bilayer, it modulates membrane fluidity and stability across varying temperatures.

  • Carbohydrates: Glycolipids and glycoproteins on the cell surface that play key roles in cell recognition and signaling processes.

UNIT 5: TRANSPORT PROCESSES

Active vs. Passive Transport

  • Active Transport: A process requiring energy (in the form of ATP) to move substances against their concentration gradient, essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis.

  • Passive Transport: Movement of substances across membranes without energy input, relying on concentration gradients; includes processes like diffusion and osmosis.

Points of Transport

  • Discuss specific transport processes for substances such as carbon dioxide (CO2), chloride ions (Cl-), fructose, and water, emphasizing mechanisms and biological significance.

  • Chloride Ion Transport: Chloride ions require specific protein channels due to their charged nature, which facilitates their movement across cell membranes.

UNIT 6: TISSUE STRUCTURE

Definitions

  • Tissue: A group of similar cells working together to perform a specific function, composed of extracellular matrix components that provide structural and functional support.

  • Embryonic Tissue: The precursor tissue that will differentiate into various specialized cell types and tissues during development.

Types of Tissues and Functions

  • Epithelial Tissue: Functions in protection, absorption, secretion, and sensation; can be classified into different types such as squamous, cuboidal, and columnar based on cell shape.

  • Connective Tissue: Characterized by a diverse range of functions, including supporting, binding, and protecting organs; includes types like loose connective tissue, adipose, cartilage, and blood.

  • Muscle Tissue: Specialized for contraction and movement; categorized into three types: skeletal (voluntary), smooth (involuntary), and cardiac (involuntary, striated).

UNIT 7: NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous Pathways and Components

  • Types of Neurons: Describe sensory neurons (responding to stimuli), motor neurons (conducting signals to muscles), and interneurons (connecting neurons within the brain and spinal cord).

  • Nervous System Divisions: Explain the autonomic nervous system (involuntary control like heart rate) and somatic nervous system (voluntary control like muscle movement).

Neurotransmitter Function

  • Discuss the role of neurotransmitters in synaptic transmission, detailing how they facilitate communication between neurons and influence muscle contractions and other physiological processes.

UNIT 8: SENSORY SYSTEMS

Mechanism of Sensation

  • Outline the pathways for taste (gustatory) and smell (olfactory) sensory processing, detailing how sensory receptors transduce stimuli into neural signals.

  • Sensory Receptors: Discuss the functions of various sensory receptors, including photoreceptors in the eye (rod and cone cells), which are responsible for vision under different light conditions.

UNIT 9: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Tissue Composition

  • Discuss the layers of skin: Epidermis (outer protective layer), Dermis (contains blood vessels, nerves, and hair follicles), and Hypodermis (fat layer that insulates and supports structure).

Skin Functions

  • Protection against environmental hazards, thermoregulation via sweating and blood flow regulation, sensation through nerve endings, and serving as a barrier against pathogens and moisture loss.

UNIT 10: MUSCLE ANATOMY & FUNCTION

Muscle Types

  • Skeletal Muscle: Striated and multinucleated, under voluntary control, responsible for movement of limbs and body posture.

  • Cardiac Muscle: Striated but involuntary, interconnected fibers that enable coordinated contractions to pump blood through the heart.

  • Smooth Muscle: Non-striated and involuntary, found in walls of hollow organs (e.g., intestines, blood vessels), facilitating movement of substances through these organs.

Muscle Contraction Mechanism

  • Explain the phases of muscle contraction including excitation (action potential generation), contraction (sliding filament mechanism), and relaxation (cessation of stimulation and reuptake of calcium ions).

Muscle Physiology Concepts

  • Discuss muscle tone (the steady state of muscle contraction supporting posture), and the critical roles of calcium ions and ATP (adenosine triphosphate) in muscle physiology and activity during contraction and relaxation.