Week 4 Brennen Textual Analysis

Textual analysis is all about language, what it represents and how we use it to make sense of our live.

Qualitative researchers do not study texts to predict what people would do, but instead to understand how people use texts to make sense of their lives. (pg 214). to understand the literal and underlying meanings of the texts used and connect them to social issues This involves examining the context in which the texts were created, including the cultural, historical, and social influences that shape their interpretation. While a quantitative method would focus more in the numerical data derived from texts to draw generalizable conclusions.

The influence of Semiotics -

analysts began to look systematically at how signs (words, images, sounds, gestures, objects) work together according to cultural “codes.” Recently, semiotics expanded to multimodality — meaning we analyze texts made from many modes (visuals, sound, language, design, gesture) and how those modes interact. The theoretical frame you pick (e.g., semiotics, rhetorical, ideological) shapes the questions you ask and what you notice.

  • Sign: anything that stands for something else (a photo, a word, a gesture).

  • Signifier: the physical form — letters, sounds, image (e.g., the word rose, a picture of a rose).

  • Signified: the mental concept or meaning (the idea of a fragrant flower with thorns).

  • Denotation: literal, surface meaning (what you see).

  • Connotation: associated meanings, emotions, values (what the sign suggests culturally).

  • Code: the cultural rules/agreements that link signifiers to signifieds (why a black suit often connotes formality).

Arbitrary relation: the signifier-signified link is conventional, not natural (no inherent reason “rose” must mean that flower). “the associations between the signifier and the signified are considered arbitrary; that is, there is no definitive reason why the letters that constitute a word must refer to that specific word.” (pg 216). these frameworks  mentioned in the article show us that the meaning of a text is never fixed — it’s shaped by creators, culture, and the audiences and their constant negotiation on meanings.

  • Multimodality: combining modes — visuals + text + sound + gesture — to make meaning.

Multimodality is crucial for ads, TV, games — these texts use sound, color, camera, and words together.

Bridgerton as a Case Study - 

  • Bridgerton is used as the example text to show how different theories guide different questions.

  • It’s historically inspired but not historically accurate — e.g., diverse casting in Regency-era London, reimagining Queen Charlotte as Black.

  • This “purposeful inaccuracy” lets researchers talk about representation, ideology, and how audiences read/interpret media.

Critical Race Theory - 

  • Core idea: Racism is ordinary, not exceptional. It’s built into systems, everyday life, and cultural practices (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017).

  • Race = social construction, not biological reality.

  • In Bridgerton:

    • Ask how race and power work in the show.

    • How does casting Black and mixed-race actors shift storylines or challenge stereotypes?

    • Is Rhimes’ vision of a racially integrated high society liberating or does it risk simplifying real racial histories?

Bridgerton imagines a utopian past where race doesn’t limit power in the same way. CRT asks: is this rewriting empowering for viewers of color, or does it erase real histories of oppression?

British Cultural Studies -

  • Media is tied to power, ideology, and audience reception. Audiences are not passive; they interpret and decode texts in multiple ways.

  • In Bridgerton: Look at how audiences around the world make sense of the show. Some may see it as feminist and racially inclusive; others may see it as tokenistic or escapist fantasy. 

Encoding and Decoding - “Hall suggested that it is important for researchers to go beyond

analyzing the intended meaning that is produced in texts to explore the

ways texts are understood by readers and audience members “ (pg 222)

  • Encoding: Producers/authors insert an intended meaning (dominant code) in the text.

  • Decoding: Audiences interpret in 3 ways:

    • Dominant: accept the intended meaning.

    • Negotiated: partly accept, partly resist.

    • Oppositional: reject entirely, create alternative meaning.

  • In Bridgerton:

    • Dominant reading: “This is progressive, diverse, and empowering.”

    • Negotiated reading: “It’s inclusive but still glamorizes hierarchy and sexism.”

    • Oppositional reading: “It erases real racism and sells fantasy diversity to make Netflix money.”

Ideological Analysis -  dominant ideas, often taken as “common sense,” that shape how society works.

Texts reflect and spread ideology (often invisibly) They are seen as a source of power because they influence values and beliefs. the article uses an example of >

Example: diamond engagement rings — now is seen as a timeless tradition, but actually a 20th-century advertising campaign by De Beers.(pg 222) the advertising campaign is an example of how economic relations can also influence a societies culture, which in turn begins to influence people's consciousness and ideological beliefs. This example  particularly stuck with me, because it shows how marketing can manipulate cultural perceptions, which falls along the line of my research question about commercial advertising.

Ideology in Media Texts

  • Early views: Researchers once thought there was a single dominant ideology that media reinforced.

  • Shift in thinking: Later, researchers argued that texts may offer multiple ideological visions rather than one.

  • Current focus: Many researchers now look at how texts reinforce dominant power relations (race, gender, class, etc.) and shape “common sense” ideas.

  • Texts are seen as sources of power because they influence values and beliefs.

Mike Cormack’s Framework for Ideological Analysis (1995)
Five key areas to evaluate in a text:

  • Content – What values, stereotypes, conflicts, and vocabulary are present?

  • Structure – How does the opening/closing guide interpretation (binary oppositions like good/evil)?

  • Absence – What’s missing that you’d expect to see? (The “unsaid” can be as meaningful as what’s present).

  • Style – Visuals, design, fashion, colors, genre.

  • Mode of Address – How the text “speaks” to the audience (direct vs indirect).

Genre Analysis

  • Definition: Understanding a text by comparing it to others in the same genre.

  • Genres have rules and conventions that shape audience expectations (e.g., gangster films = violence, betrayal, police stakeouts).

  • Key point: Genres both repeat familiar patterns and offer surprises to keep audiences engaged.

  • Social role: Genres reveal social anxieties and conflicts (e.g., horror films reflect cultural fears).

  • Genres vary in modality (connection to reality): news has high modality, cartoons have low modality.

Rhetorical Analysis - “The use of rhetorical analysis is particularly appropriate when one is assessing aspects of advertising and public relations, or when persuasion is an integral part of a media text” (pg 226) I think i would be keeping an eye out for this technique and include it in my list. 

  • Focuses on persuasion techniques in texts, it looks at how words are used to influence the audiende minds/ (esp. ads, PR, speeches).

  • Based on Aristotle’s ethos (credibility), pathos (emotion), logos (logic).

  • Researchers study:

    • Rhetorical devices (sarcasm, irony, analogies).

    • Emotional appeals (fear, approval, insecurity).

    • Visual strategies (models’ age, gender, race, fashion, body language).

    • Jingles, slogans, and catchphrases (memorable persuasion tools).

Use of Technology in Textual Analysis

  • CAQDAS (Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software): tools like NVivo, ATLAS.ti, MAXQDA help organize and code large datasets (text, images, audio, video).

  • AI-based tools (e.g., IRAMUTEQ, Leximancer) can auto-analyze big data (social media, forums), but some researchers worry this flattens meaning and ignores social context.

  • Many prefer software only for organization, keeping the interpretive analysis human

Ethical Considerations (pg 229)

  • Textual analysis is interpretive, not about finding one “true” meaning.

  • But interpretations must be reasonable and grounded in context (not random or self-serving).

Researchers should remain open to unexpected findings, rather than forcing texts to fit one’s beliefs and ideas. “it is important for qualitative researchers to let the evidence guide their interpretations rather than attempting to make the evidence fit with their preconceived opinions and beliefs.” (pg 229)

What This Research Is About

  • Bonnie Brennen studied how news media in the U.S. covered two major uprisings:

    • The Watts Riots in Los Angeles (1965)

    • The Baltimore Riots (2015) after Freddie Gray’s death in police custody.

  • She wanted to see if the language, tone, and framing of these events had changed or stayed the same over 50 years.

Key Question:
Do newspapers keep representing racial uprisings in similar ways, even decades apart?

(Method)

  • Textual Analysis → A close reading of articles to study:

    • The words used (language and tone).

    • What themes came up again and again.

    • What was missing (things they should have talked about but didn’t).

    • Any exceptions (rare articles that broke from the main pattern).

  • Sources: She looked at five big newspapers:

    • Los Angeles Times

    • The New York Times

    • The Washington Post

    • Chicago Tribune

    • Atlanta Journal-Constitution

  • Number of articles:

    • Watts (1965): 214 articles (Aug. 13–20, 1965).

    • Baltimore (2015): 352 articles (Apr. 19–29, 2015).

The Theory Behind It

Brennen uses ideas from Stuart Hall (a cultural theorist) and Raymond Williams (cultural materialism).

  • Cultural Materialism (Williams, 1981):
    Media texts (like news articles) are not neutral; they’re cultural artifacts that reflect the values and ideologies of the society at that time.

  • Stuart Hall on Media and Race:

    • Media doesn’t just report events — it shapes how we understand race.

    • Representations are tied to history and context.

    • Overt Racism: Open, explicit racism (e.g., “Black people are biologically inferior”) — rare in mainstream news.

    • Inferential Racism: Subtle, hidden assumptions that frame events as “normal” or “common sense.” Example: saying protests are “chaotic disturbances” instead of “responses to systemic injustice.”

    • Hall argued language creates ideology. Words don’t just describe; they shape how people think about reality.

Key Findings / Takeaways

  1. Historical Continuity: The same issues (police brutality, unemployment, housing, education inequality, racism) persisted across 50 years.

  2. Media Representation: Mainstream newspapers did not frame riots as part of a larger civil rights struggle. Instead, they often presented them as sudden, chaotic events.

  3. Inferential Racism: News language subtly reinforced racist assumptions by treating inequality as background noise or ignoring it altogether.

  4. Ideology: News coverage ultimately protected dominant (white, elite) power structures by avoiding systemic critiques.

Why It Matters

  • Media is powerful in shaping how society remembers and understands racial uprisings.

  • Even when not explicitly racist, news coverage can reinforce racism by leaving out context or framing issues as “isolated incidents.”

  • Studying coverage of Watts and Baltimore shows that racism in news media is not just past history — it’s ongoing.

Summary

Brennen’s article is basically a guidebook showing students and researchers how they can study media texts in meaningful ways. She doesn’t just list methods, she explains how each tool helps uncover different layers of meaning in media and culture.

  • Semiotic analysis: Brennen explains that this tool is about studying signs, symbols, and meanings. She uses it to show how researchers can dig into the deeper messages of media texts (for example, how an ad uses images, colors, and symbols to create a certain feeling). She sees it as useful for breaking down how meaning is constructed, often without us realizing it.

  • Rhetorical analysis: She treats this tool as a way of looking at persuasion. Brennen points out that media texts try to convince audiences to believe, buy, or feel something. This method helps uncover those persuasive strategies — whether through language, visuals, or emotional appeals.

  • Discourse analysis: Brennen uses this concept to stress the importance of context — how words, conversations, and media talk create meaning. She explains that media texts aren’t isolated but shaped by wider conversations about culture, politics, or identity. This tool helps researchers see how certain ways of speaking or framing become “normal.”

  • Ideological analysis: Here, Brennen shows how media supports or challenges systems of power. She treats it as a way to uncover hidden values and assumptions in media texts — for example, how gender, race, or class stereotypes might be reinforced in advertising or news.

  • Narrative analysis: She presents this tool as a way to study the stories media tells and how those stories are structured. Brennen emphasizes that narratives aren’t neutral — they guide audiences to see the world in specific ways, often supporting dominant ideas.

  • Audience reception studies (briefly mentioned): Although the focus is on texts, Brennen notes that texts don’t exist without audiences. She acknowledges that researchers can also study how audiences interpret or resist media messages.