IP-CH7-memory

THREE BASIC PROCESSES OF MEMORY

  1. Encoding

    • Converting information into a usable form for storage in memory.

    • Can occur:

      • Acoustically: Coded by sound.

      • Visually: Coded by forming a mental picture.

      • Semantically: Coded by meaning.

  2. Storage

    • The process of retaining information in memory.

  3. Retrieval

    • Accessing stored information to bring it to mind.

    • Retrieval cues: Help trigger memory recall (e.g., cues used in crime scenarios).

    • Context-dependent memory effect: Information is better recalled in its original context.

    • State-dependent memory effect: Recall is enhanced when in the same state as when the information was learned.

    • Studies by Duncan Godden and Alan Baddeley (1975) explore context- and state-dependent memory effects but note their weakness in certain situations.

MEMORY STAGES

SENSORY MEMORY

  • Definition: Brief impressions of sensory stimuli held in a temporary storage device.

  • Types:

    1. Iconic Memory: Visual stimuli encoded as mental images; lasts a fraction of a second.

    2. Echoic Memory: Auditory stimuli encoded; lasts 2-3 seconds (e.g., the sound of a siren).

SHORT-TERM MEMORY (STM)

  • Also called working memory, it's a storage system for processing information for about 30 seconds.

  • Primarily relies on acoustic coding, but also visual.

  • George Miller's research: Suggested STM capacity is about 7 items (plus or minus two).

  • Chunking: Grouping information into larger units to improve retention.

COMPONENTS OF WORKING MEMORY

  1. Central Executive: Coordinates between the working memory's components.

  2. Visuospatial Sketchpad: Holds visual and spatial information.

  3. Phonological Loop: Stores speech-based information.

  4. Episodic Buffer: Integrates information from different modalities to facilitate comprehension.

LONG-TERM MEMORY (LTM)

  • Can retain information for extended periods, potentially for a lifetime.

  • Consolidation: Converting fresh memories into long-term storage, emphasized during the first 24 hours.

  • Information is primarily encoded semantically.

ORGANIZATION OF LTM

  • Semantic Network Model: Information is stored within networks of interrelated concepts, activating recall through association (spreading activation).

TYPES OF LONG-TERM MEMORY

  1. Declarative Memory (explicit memory): Facts and knowledge.

    • Semantic Memory: Knowledge of facts.

    • Episodic Memory: Personal experiences and specific events.

  2. Procedural Memory (implicit memory): Skills and tasks; often acquired through practice and not necessarily retrievable with conscious effort.

FORGETTING

THEORIES OF FORGETTING

  1. Decay Theory: Suggests memories fade over time.

  2. Interference Theory: Proposes that learning new information can hinder the recall of old information.

    • Retroactive interference: New learning disrupts the recall of old information.

    • Proactive interference: Older memories make it difficult to learn new information.

  3. Retrieval Theory: Forgetting arises from failure to access stored memories, potentially due to insufficient retrieval cues or encoding failures.

AMNESIA

  • Types:

  1. Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of memories prior to an event.

  2. Anterograde Amnesia: Difficulty in forming new memories after an event.

POTENTIAL CAUSES

  • Can range from physical trauma (e.g., brain injury) to psychological factors (e.g., emotional distress).

TIPS FOR BETTER MEMORY

  • Use acronyms, chunking, and visual imagery to encode information effectively.

  • Employ external memory aids: notes, reminders, etc.

  • Practice regularly and engage in elaborative rehearsal to deepen memory retention.

  • Control stress and adopt healthy habits (diet, sleep, exercise) to enhance cognitive functioning.