EXAM 2: PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

Classical Conditioning
- Definition: A learning process that involves associating two stimuli. One stimulus evokes a response typically elicited by the other stimulus.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
- Definition: A stimulus that naturally and automatically elicits a reflexive or innate response without prior learning.
Unconditioned Response (UR)
- Definition: The unlearned reflexive or innate response elicited by the US without prior learning.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
- Definition: An originally neutral stimulus that, after being associated with the US, elicits a conditioned response (CR).
Conditioned Response (CR)
- Definition: The learned response that occurs in reaction to the conditioned stimulus after conditioning has taken place.

The process begins with an innate unlearned response:
- US: Food
- UR: Salivation
A neutral stimulus (CS) is presented before the reflex is triggered, leading to a new learned response:
- CS: Bell
- CR: Salivation
This relationship illustrates how classical conditioning prepares an organism for future events (e.g., the bell signals food).

Protozoans: Do not demonstrate capability for classical conditioning.
Apetitive Conditioning: When the arrival of the US is a positive event (e.g., food).
Aversive Conditioning: When the arrival of the US is a negative event (e.g., shock).
Conditioned Emotional Response (CER): CR is an emotional response (e.g., fear/anxiety).
Classical Excitatory Conditioning: CS elicits a response (CR) similar to the UR.
Classical Inhibitory Conditioning: CS elicits a response (CR) different or opposite to the UR.

Stimulus: Puff of air to the eye (US) induces eyeblink (UR).
CS: Tone or light, which leads to gradual eye closure (CR).
This conditioning method is effective in both rabbits and humans but requires many trials.

Initial Response: The CS (tone) initially elicits no response.
Effectiveness Over Time: The effectiveness of the CS builds gradually with numerous pairings with the US.
Training Graphs:
- Plots show the percentage of CS exposures that produce a CR (anticipatory eyeblink).
- Initially, the CS exposure does not produce a CR, but over time, nearly every CS produces a CR.

Example: "Little Albert" study (1929) exemplifies conditioned fear responses.
Before Conditioning: Albert sees a white rat without fear.
After Conditioning: Albert develops fear towards the rat and even similar stimuli (like Santa Claus).

Definition: The process of establishing and strengthening the CR through repeated CS-US pairings.
Graphical Representation: Shows the drops of saliva elicited during acquisition and extinction phases, highlighting the strength of CR over trials.

Definition: The process in which the CS is presented without the US, leading to a weakening and eventual disappearance of the CR.
Notable Points:
- Initial strong CR gradually diminishes with repeated CS presentations alone.
- Extinction inhibits the CS-CR performance rather than erasing the CS-US connection.
- Factors such as stress or changes in context can revive the CS-CR association following extinction.

Definition: The reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a rest period, typically weaker and extinguishing more rapidly upon return.

Stimulus Generalization: Similar stimuli to the initial CS elicit a CR, aiding in survival.
Discrimination: The CR occurs to one stimulus but not another, allowing for differentiation between stimuli.

Positive Contingency: Presence of one stimulus predicts the occurrence of another.
Negative Contingency: Presence of one stimulus predicts the absence of another.

CS-US Order:
- Forward Delay: CS precedes US.
- Simultaneous: Both appear at the same time.
- Backward: US comes before CS.
CS-US Interval: Optimal interval is typically 200 msec – 2 sec for conditioning effectiveness.
# CS-US Pairings: More pairings generally improve learning up to a maximum learning threshold.

Intensity: The strength and salience of a stimulus can influence conditioning.
Familiarity/Previous Experience: Prior exposure to a CS can inhibit learning and lead to latent inhibition, where animals ignore known CS as it becomes irrelevant.

Associative Bias: Indicates that some associations are easier to form than others based on biological relevance.
Studies by Garcia and Koelling (1966) demonstrate how animals are predisposed to associate tastes with sickness and sounds with pain based on evolutionary history.

Overshadowing: When a more salient stimulus in a compound CS overshadows the learning of a less salient stimulus.
Blocking: Occurs when a previously conditioned stimulus prevents the learning of a new stimulus when both are presented together. This suggests that previous knowledge interferes with new learning.

Conditioned Fear Responses: Used in therapies for treating fear and anxiety.
Aversion Therapy: Pairs an unwanted behavior-triggering CS with a noxious US to condition an aversion (e.g., pairing a food with nausea).
Exposure Therapy: Techniques like systematic desensitization and flooding to extinguish conditioned responses by exposing patients to feared stimuli without US.

Classical conditioning involves innate reflexes where a neutral stimulus is conditioned to elicit a response, helping organisms prepare and respond to their environment.

Pavlov’s Contiguity Theory: Conditioning occurs due to the temporal association between the CS and US.
Rescorla-Wagner Modified Contiguity Theory:
- Key points: Conditioning occurs based on the surprise of the US, and the extent of conditioning relates to the surprising correlation between CS and US.
- Formula:
  $\Delta V_a = \alpha \beta (\lambda - V_{ax})$
- Variables:
- $\alpha$ : CS salience
- $\beta$ : US intensity
- $\lambda$ : Total potential conditioning the US can support
- $V_{ax}$ : Total conditioning in previous trials.