Rosenshine – Principles of Instruction (Comprehensive Notes)
Research Foundations and Context
Instructional principles stem from three mutually reinforcing research strands:
Cognitive science: limitations of working memory, importance of long-term memory, the role of rehearsal and chunking.
Studies of “master teachers”: classroom observations that identify high-leverage moves.
Cognitive supports (scaffolding, modeling, prompts).
Convergence across strands high confidence in validity.
Central instructional mission: move students from novice status to fluent, automatic retrieval by ensuring efficient acquisition, rehearsal, and connection of background knowledge.
Most effective teachers supply substantial instructional support before asking for independent work or experiential/hands-on tasks (these come after basics are secure).
Principle 1 – Begin Each Lesson with a Short Review of Previous Learning
Purpose
Strengthens prior knowledge → fluent recall.
Frees working-memory capacity for new learning.
Research highlights
Daily review = component of thousands-of-hours practice experts accrue.
Elementary math study: teachers trained to spend 8 min daily on review ⇒ higher achievement.
Classroom moves (5–8 min):
Check homework; address errors.
Revisit vocabulary, formulas, concepts needed for current lesson/homework.
Peer-correction, quick quizzes, error analysis.
Decide which facts/ideas must become automatic or refreshed.
Principle 2 – Present New Material in Small Steps with Practice After Each Step
Cognitive science
Working memory can process only a few bits at once → “swamping” risk.
Effective-teacher pattern
Deliver short presentations, each mastered before next point.
Frequent understanding checks; reteach immediately when gaps appear.
Use numerous concrete examples and elaborations.
Math study: effective teachers lectured/demonstrated 23 min of a 40 min period; ineffective only 11 min then issued worksheets.
Principle 3 – Ask Many Questions and Check Responses of ALL Students
Functions
Provides rehearsal, retrieval practice, formative assessment.
Empirical result: teachers trained to follow explanations with lots of questions → students outperformed control.
Inclusive response techniques
Think-pair-share; neighbor summaries; response cards; hand signals; agreement hand-raise; choral response (all start on cue).
Also prompt students to explain their process (metacognitive talk).
Principle 4 – Provide Models (Worked Examples & Think-Alouds)
Cognitive supports reduce load, spotlight key steps.
Effective across math, science, writing, reading.
Typical modeling cycle
Teacher shows prompt/tool.
Demonstrates usage with think-aloud.
Supplies multiple examples.
Guides students in using prompt.
Gradually releases responsibility; evaluates quality of student work/questions.
Principle 5 – Guide Student Practice of New Material
Without rehearsal, new info decays.
Quality practice = rephrase, elaborate, summarise under teacher supervision.
Successful math teachers: more time guiding practice at board, inviting students up, discussing rationales.
Solid guided practice → higher engagement during later seatwork & homework.
Principle 6 – Check for Understanding Constantly
Frequent checks both process information into long-term memory and reveal misconceptions early.
Techniques: targeted questions, student summaries, direction restatements, agree/disagree prompts, think-alouds, peer explanation/defense.
Warning against the “Any questions?” trap—absence of questions ≠ presence of understanding.
Small-step teaching + guided practice + checking minimizes misconstruction of schema.
Principle 7 – Ensure a High Success Rate During Practice
Data: classrooms of top fourth-grade math teachers had 82\% correct responses; lower group 73\%.
Optimal rate ≈ 80\% → balance of mastery & challenge.
High success prevents practicing errors (“practice makes permanent”).
Teachers may halt activities/homework if widespread errors emerge, reteach before more practice.
Mastery Learning: progress contingent on demonstrating mastery of each unit; tutoring/remediation supports slower learners.
Principle 8 – Provide Scaffolds for Difficult Tasks and Fade Them Gradually
Scaffolds = temporary supports: modeling, prompts ("who/why/how"), cue cards, checklists, partially completed solutions.
Think-alouds label expert cognitive moves for novices.
Teachers anticipate & warn about common errors; supply error analysis tasks.
Principle 9 – Secure Extensive, Successful Independent Practice (Overlearning)
Overlearning → automaticity; frees working memory for comprehension/transfer.
Independent work must mirror guided practice; students fully prepped first.
Effective supervision: teacher circulates, contacts ≤30 s; high need for desk-side reteaching signals insufficient guided phase.
Principle 10 – Conduct Weekly & Monthly Review for Long-Term Retention and Connections
Rehearsal strengthens networks; unitization/chunking frees working memory space → hallmark of expertise.
Classroom routines: “Weekly Monday review” + “Fourth-Monday monthly review”; follow with quizzes/tests.
Secondary data: classes with weekly quizzes beat classes with one/two term quizzes on finals.
Trade-off challenge: coverage vs. review; research shows unreviewed material is soon forgotten.
Expanded List – 17 Principles of Effective Instruction (Rosenshine)
Short review of previous learning.
New material in small steps w/ practice.
Limit amount delivered at once.
Clear, detailed instructions & explanations.
Many questions & understanding checks.
High level of active practice for all.
Guide students as they start practice.
Think aloud & model steps.
Provide worked-out models.
Ask students to explain learning.
Check responses of all students.
Provide systematic feedback & corrections.
Use extra time for explanations.
Provide many examples.
Reteach when necessary.
Prepare students for independent work.
Monitor students at start of independence.
Cognitive Science Underpinnings
Working Memory capacity limits → need for chunked input.
Long-Term Memory stores schemas; retrieval strength depends on rehearsal & spacing.
Automatized knowledge occupies tiny WM space; creates bandwidth for higher-order thinking.
Chunking/unitization = transformation from novice to expert.
Practical & Ethical Implications
Ethic of error-prevention: teachers safeguard against students ingraining mistakes.
Equity: high success for all prevents slower learners from falling behind; mastery learning frameworks promote fairness.
Teacher responsibility to monitor and adjust, rather than blame learner “ability.”
Real-World & Cross-Disciplinary Relevance
Principles apply beyond K-12: corporate training, college instruction, tutoring, coaching.
Analogous to athletic/skill coaching: deliberate practice with immediate feedback, scaffolding, gradually increased complexity.
Statistical & Numerical References (in LaTeX)
Daily math review experiment: 8 \text{ minutes}.
Effective math teachers’ lecture/demo/question phase: 23\text{/}40 \text{ minutes}.
Ineffective: 11\text{/}40 \text{ minutes}.
Optimal guided-practice success rate: \approx 80\%.
Observed high vs. low teacher success rates: 82\% vs. 73\%.
Effective circulation contact time: \le 30\text{ seconds} each.
Connections to Earlier Educational Principles
Aligns with “I Do – We Do – You Do” gradual release model.
Resonates with Gagné’s Nine Events (review ↔ retrieval, modeling ↔ demonstration, practice ↔ performance).
Supports Spacing Effect & Retrieval Practice literature.
Study Tips for Students (Synthesizing the Principles)
Self-quiz daily; keep errors log.
Break study material into micro-chunks; practice after each chunk.
Explain answers aloud or to a peer.
Seek/generate worked examples; study steps, then cover & redo.
Aim for 80\% correct in self-practice; fix mistakes immediately.
Schedule weekly & monthly cumulative reviews; use flashcards/spaced-repetition apps.
Closing Takeaways
Effective instruction is structured, explicit, and responsive.
Teacher expertise lies in orchestrating presentation, scaffolding, practice, and feedback so that all learners build robust, automatic knowledge networks.