Comprehensive Notes on Native Americans, Western Expansion, and Industrialization in America
Native American Background Information - Elena Kagel
Jefferson and Natives
Thomas Jefferson envisioned an "Agrarian Republic" where Native Americans would assimilate into American society.
In 1824, the Bureau of Indian Affairs was established.
It was marked by corruption during Andrew Jackson's presidency.
Indian Removal: This policy led to the tragic Trail of Tears.
1862 Homestead Act: Most Native Americans supported the Confederacy due to their negative experiences with the federal government.
The West
Massacre at Sand Creek:
This event occurred on November 29, 1864, in southeast Colorado.
Colonel John M. Chivington led the Colorado Volunteers in an attack on a peaceful Cheyenne and Arapahoe village, which was under the leadership of Chief Black Kettle.
The village had displayed an American flag, signifying their intention for peace, yet Chivington ordered an attack.
Approximately 400 Native Americans were killed, primarily women and children.
The massacre deepened tensions between Native Americans and U.S. settlers, leading to continued violence throughout the 1890s.
In retaliation, Sioux forces led by Red Cloud attacked U.S. troops, most notably defeating William J. Fetterman’s command in 1866.
These conflicts precipitated the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie, which temporarily acknowledged Native land rights but failed to maintain peace.
Custer's Last Stand:
The peace treaty with the Lakota tribe was shattered due to the discovery of gold in the Black Hills.
Native leaders Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse opted to defend their lands by resorting to arms.
General George Armstrong Custer, underestimating the Native resistance and overconfident due to technological advantages (including the Gatling Gun), met a devastating defeat at the hands of the Native American warriors.
Land Reservations
Life on the Reservations:
Native Americans were required to live on designated land reservations, which posed severe economic challenges and raised moral questions about displacing peoples from their ancestral lands.
Traditionally nomadic tribes were restricted, which disrupted their way of life.
Farming in the Western U.S. was challenging due to lack of experience and knowledge, creating dependence on government aid.
The Dawes Act:
The law allocated 160 acres of land to Native American families for farming, with the stipulation that the land could not be sold for 25 years.
Its intent was to make Native Americans self-sufficient and assimilate them into citizenship.
The act faced widespread resistance due to cultural concerns and the complexity of farming in the West, which many Native Americans were unfamiliar with.
"Americanizing" the Indians:
Schools were established to educate Native American children in English literacy and American customs.
Parents who failed to ensure their children attended these schools were subjected to visits from truancy officials.
There was a general disregard for tribal languages and traditions in these efforts.
Students were often forced to adopt Western attire and hairstyles, deepening cultural divides within tribes.
Resistance to this education was deemed an honorable act among Native populations.
Consequences:
Following the Dawes Act's repeal in 1934, Native Americans faced low literacy rates, high levels of alcoholism, poverty, and increased rates of suicide compared to other demographics.
Shifts in Perspective:
Many Native Americans were ultimately coerced into accepting life on significantly smaller reservations.
The discovery of gold in South Dakota escalated tensions and encouraged settlers to disturb Native lands.
Helen Hunt Jackson's A Century of Dishonor:
In her work, she criticized the federal government's treatment of Native Americans.
The End of Resistance
Buffalo Population Decline:
Travelers were encouraged to kill buffalo due to the demand for their hides.
This led to the near extinction of buffalo populations, significantly impacting Native American culture and economies.
At the end of the Civil War, there were approximately 15 million buffalo in the Great Plains, which dwindled to a few hundred by 1900.
Custer's death:
The narrative surrounding Custer's death was used to justify violent reprisal against Native Americans.
Wounded Knee Massacre:
This marked the end of armed resistance by Native Americans.
Remaining Sioux were forcibly relocated into reservations under duress, driving a spiritual resurgence among tribal populations.
This led to the spread of the "Ghost Dance" movement, a non-violent spiritual revival that was misunderstood and linked to prophetic expectations among non-Native observers.
The Mining Boom
Key mineral discoveries post-California Gold Rush led to an influx of prospectors.
The reality was that very few achieved wealth during this boom period, leading to the formation of "boom towns", which would become ghost towns once mining ceased.
These towns had a high male-to-female ratio (9 to 1).
Saloons became popular, and many women found employment as prostitutes, an occupation where verbal communication was minimal.
The Rise of the Cowboy
The primary responsibility of cowboys was to transport cattle from Texas to meat processing facilities in Chicago.
Contrary to popular perception, many cowboys were African American.
Cowhands often lacked extensive skills in traditional cowboy activities.
Decline of the Cowboy:
Factors included the introduction of barbed wire, expanded railroad networks, and overgrazing of pastures.
1893 Turner Thesis:
This declared that the American frontier was closed, believing this closure would lead to a decline in American character, with mentioned shifts due to westward expansion driven by economic interests.
Native Americans' Experience
Native Americans experienced loss of lands, military oppression, and betrayed treaties.
Despite attempts at resistance, they were ultimately overwhelmed as perceptions shifted from extinction to assimilation.
Key Concepts Period 6
6.1: The rise of big business in the U.S. led to mass migrations, urbanization, economic restructuring, and revitalization of national identity debates.
6.2: Emergence of industrial culture in the U.S. resulted in enhanced opportunities and restrictions for immigrants, minorities, and women.
6.3: The Gilded Age featured cultural and intellectual movements amid political debates on economic policies.
Populism: Reflected the plight of farmers, particularly in response to issues stemming from agricultural economics and industrial growth.
Immigration: The second wave immigrated during the Gilded Age (1876-1900).
Progressivism emerged as a response to the societal issues prominent in this era, combining industrialization, populism, and immigration-related challenges.
Characteristics of Industrial Era
1st Industrial Revolution (Pre-Civil War)
Focused on textiles, railroads, iron, oil (Rockefeller), and steel (Carnegie).
2nd Industrial Revolution (Gilded Age)
Defined by the growth of railroads and related industries, marked as the first significant giant businesses in America.
Innovations led to material prosperity, including electric lighting, gas and water systems, streetcars, and the rise of shopping as a social engagement.
Examples include prominent department stores like R.H. Macy’s, Marshall Field, and mail-order catalogs.
Rise of Big Business and Its Impact
Industrialization: By the late 1800s, big businesses wielded significant economic control. Corporations, characterized by stockholders and minimal regulations, laid the groundwork for industrial giants like Standard Oil and General Electric.
Flat policies that favored laissez-faire government prone to abuses became apparent.
The shift from a pre-industrial society which was primarily small-scale and personalized to a large-scale, depersonalized industrial society changed labor dynamics significantly.
Concepts of social safety nets such as workers' rights, education, Unemployment, retirement, and welfare remained largely neglected.
Major economic initiatives emerged from Southern leaders, who pushed for modern industry and railroad expansion following the Civil War.
Despite industrialization in the South, racial disparities and poverty persisted, showing industrialization spread unevenly during the Gilded Age.
U.S. Historical Overview 1865-1898
In 1865, following the Civil War’s conclusion, the majority of the U.S. population remained agrarian.
By 1898, the U.S. had become one of the leading industrial producers worldwide, with labor reform movements beginning to surface amid urban population growth.
The New South
Key economic changes included urban growth, railway improvements, and an emerging textile industry.
Racial dynamics presented significant challenges, with systemic segregation and the inadequacies faced by freedmen.
Political disenfranchisement led to communities organizing for civil rights, spearheaded by new groups fighting for African American rights.
The Rise of Industrial Capitalism (1865-1898)
The railroad industry saw major growth; rail mileage soared from 35,000 miles in 1865 to 193,000 by 1900 through federal support.
Railroads integrated national markets, mass production, and economic specialization while linking the growth of coal and steel industries.
Corruption and challenges posed as mismanagement led to a financial panic in 1893, notably impacting the railroad sector.
The emergence of monopolies created a climate where challenges to basic economic principles arose, resulting in social movements promoting worker rights and legislative changes, notably within the regulatory landscape during the Progressive Era.
Technological Innovation During Gilded Age
Innovations such as the telegraph, transatlantic cable, and typewriter reshaped communication and industrial processes.
The steel industry's enhancement via the Bessemer Process made a significant impact on construction and manufacturing.
Electric technology revolutionized living standards and consumer goods while giving rise to department stores, enhancing urban life.
Labor Issues and Social Movements
Unions formed to advocate for worker rights (Knights of Labor and American Federation of Labor) but faced significant challenges, including public perception following violent incidents like the Haymarket Riot.
The pull factors driving populism emerged with farmers' alliances rising up against corporate and banking interests, advocating for reforms that reflected the needs of the working class and disenfranchised populace.
The Populist Party embodied several core reforms that addressed economic injustice particularly in rural areas, promoting policy changes that shaped the national discourse on economic governance.