Medieval & Renaissance Art

Byzantine and Medieval Art

With the fall of the Roman Empire, the connections

between its parts disintegrated, and what was once a

vast empire evolved into separate and often warring

kingdoms. But even as the Empire collapsed in

Western Europe, it continued in Byzantium. The art

that is best known from this Eastern culture is mosaic

work in which small ceramic tiles, pieces of stone,

or glass were set into a ground material to create

large murals. It is an art that is largely Christian in

content and can best be studied in the glimmering,

shining mosaic walls of the great churches of Ravenna.

Although Ravenna is in present-day Italy, it was

then under Byzantine control. In terms of Byzantine

architecture, the Hagia Sophia (532–537 ce), built in

Constantinople, is still considered one of the greatest

architectural achievements in history.

The medieval period witnessed a great deal of civil

strife, and consequently the art of this era was preserved

largely by the Church. During these times, the majority

of the population was illiterate; formal education was

largely limited to the noble class and the clergy. The

international language was Latin, and books were

hand copied on vellum or parchment. The preservation

and production of books was largely confined to

monasteries, where the monks spent time copying

and illustrating the books in their collections, which

were so valuable that they were chained to the tables

where they were read. These illuminated manuscripts

were remarkable works of art and helped facilitate

the exchange of artistic ideas between northern and

southern Europe. Among the many notable examples

are the Book of Kells (late eighth or early ninth century)

and the Coronation Gospels (c. 800–810).

Notable from the early medieval period (c. 375–1025)

is the art of nomadic Germanic peoples, particularly

their metalwork. The metal arts of this time period

were abstract, decorative, and geometric and often

took the form of small-scale, portable jewelry or

ornaments made of bronze, silver, or gold and covered

with patterns of jewels. Artifacts from this era also

exist from the seafaring culture of the Vikings in

Scandinavia. While metalwork was popular with the

Germanic peoples, wood was the most important

medium to the Vikings, who carved artistic designs

and sculptures on their wooden ships. As a result of

Viking invasions, the artistic styles of the Vikings

eventually merged with those found in Anglo-Saxon

England and Celtic Ireland. The resultant style is often

termed Hiberno-Saxon.

In later medieval art, the architecture of churches

became a dominant art form. Every city, town, and

village had a church at its center, and the largest of

these are masterpieces of art that often took more than

a century to complete. The earliest churches of this

period used a Roman arch as the basis of their design,

and so the style used is called Romanesque. One

famous example is Saint-Sernin in Toulouse, France (c.

1070–1120). Romanesque churches were stone vaulted

buildings that often replaced earlier churches that had

highly flammable wooden roofs. Romanesque churches

are usually formed of a tunnel of arches called a barrel

vault. A vault is an arch-shaped structure that is used

as a ceiling or as a support to a roof. Massive walls

had to be built to support the heavy stone arches of the

Romanesque style. Consequently, window and door

openings were usually kept quite small and were often

decorated with carvings and relief sculpture.

The Gothic style developed in the first half of the

twelfth century and remained popular into the sixteenth

century. Though this style was used for some secular

buildings, it was largely applied to the construction of

churches. One characteristic of the Gothic style was the

use of pointed arches, which gave an upward, soaring

sense to Gothic interiors. Another important element

of the Gothic style was the addition of ribbed vaults,

a framework of thin stone ribs or arches built under

the intersection of the vaulted sections of the ceiling. A

key innovation came in the early Gothic period when

architects learned that the downward and outward

pressure created by the arches of the barrel vault could

be counteracted by the use of flying buttresses—

additional bracing material and arches placed on the

exterior of the building. This advance allowed for larger

windows, many of which were filled with beautiful

stained glass, and higher ceilings. A classic example of a

Gothic cathedral is Chartres Cathedral in France (begun

c. 1145; rebuilt after 1194). Here the effect of the tall

arches and the brightly colored light from the stained-

glass windows directs attention heavenward.

The Renaissance in Southern Europe

Although we often tend to divide historical periods into

a series of discrete and separate styles and events, in

actuality, history is much more complicated and subtle.

The transition from the later medieval period to the

Renaissance provides a good example of this, as the

styles from this period cannot be neatly identified as

either Gothic or Renaissance, but rather involve a mix of

the two. The artist most often mentioned in connection

with this transitional time period is a Florentine named

Giotto di Bondone (1267–1336/37), who is best known

for his frescoes. A key advance visible in Giotto’s works

is his use of a simple perspective, achieved in large part

by overlapping and modeling his figures in the round.

This technique created the illusion of a stage for his

figures, giving the viewer a sense of looking into the

event. Giotto’s works were different from many Gothic

works as he gave his figures powerful gestures and

emotional expressions. To our eyes, his paintings may

not look entirely naturalistic, but his artistic innovations

must have had quite an impact on viewers at the time,

who were accustomed to the flat, unexpressive, and

stylized figures of the Gothic style.

Like the art of ancient Greece, the art of the Renaissance

continues to have an impact on art today. It is interesting

to note that a change in the economy played a key part

in triggering the Renaissance. It was in this time period

that paper money was first developed, and its use led, in

part, to the vast fortunes accumulated by notables such

as the Medici family. These wealthy families were the

major patrons of the arts during the Renaissance era.

Another important factor was the fact that examples of

Greek and Roman art were readily available in Italy, and

these classical works of art had a tremendous impact on

the art of the Renaissance.

As we discuss the art of this period and later, you will

observe that the lives and works of individual artists

are often highlighted, while this has not been the case

in our discussion of earlier periods. In part, this can

be attributed to a new emphasis on the individual and

the concept of individual genius that emerged during

the Renaissance. Until the time of the Renaissance,

painters and sculptors were, in accordance with Greek

traditions of art, considered artisans. That is, they

were people who were viewed as being of lesser status

because they worked with their hands. During the

Renaissance, the role of artists in society changed,

as great artists came to be recognized as intellectual

figures. Consequently, artists were accorded a special

place in society.

An important event near the beginning of the

Renaissance was a competition held in the city of

Florence in 1401 for the design of the doors for the

city’s new baptistery. The winner of that competition

was Lorenzo Ghiberti (1381?–1455), who designed a

door panel that had figures harkening back to those of

classical Greece. Ghiberti’s panel design depicts the

sacrifice of Isaac, in which Isaac appears as a classical

Greek figure. Soon after the doors were installed,

Ghiberti was asked to make a second set for another

entrance to the cathedral. This second set took more

than twenty-five years to complete. The doors were so

magnificent that Michelangelo called them the “Gates of

Paradise,” and they have been referred to by that name

ever since.

The second-place winner in the competition was

Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446). After losing the

competition, he concentrated on architecture and won

a competition to complete the dome of the cathedral

in Florence, which had remained unfinished for many

years because architects had not been able to construct

the huge vault that was required to span the open

space. Brunelleschi achieved this major engineering

feat with the help of a double-shelled dome design

that has been imitated by many later architects.

Brunelleschi is also credited with developing linear

(single vanishing point) perspective. Masaccio

(1401–28), a Renaissance painter, is given credit for

putting Brunelleschi’s theory into practice, as he used

both linear and aerial perspective in his frescoes. The

development of linear perspective had a tremendous

and lasting influence on the world of art.

Among the most remarkable of Renaissance artists

was Donatello (1389?–1466), who is widely considered

the founder of modern sculpture. The influence of

classical antiquity on his sculpture was strong, as

evidenced by his best-known work, a bronze statue

of David (c. 1420s–60s). This work was the first

known freestanding nude statue to have been cast

since antiquity. Toward the end of his life, Donatello’s

sculptures reflected a greater emphasis on naturalism

and the expression of character and dramatic action.

A generation later, the work of Botticelli (1444?–1510),

particularly his best-known painting, The Birth of

Venus (c. 1482), established an image of female beauty

that has lasted through the centuries. His long-necked

Venus with her languid pose and flowing hair was one

of the first paintings of a full-length nude female since

antiquity.

The generation of artists that followed are often

referred to as High Renaissance artists. Two well-

known artists of this time period, Leonardo da Vinci

(1452–1519) and Michelangelo (1475–1564), are the

models for the term “Renaissance Man.” Leonardo

da Vinci is well known as an inventor, but also is

recognized as an architect, engineer, painter, sculptor,

scientist, and musician. His design for the locks

that control movements along canals from one level

to another is still used today, and his drawings of

submarines and helicopters have been found to be

viable models. Two of his paintings, The Last Supper

(c. 1495–98) and the Mona Lisa (c.1503–05), have

become so well known that they are now icons of

popular culture. Leonardo’s key innovation in painting,

which is readily apparent in the Mona Lisa, is the use

of sfumato. Sfumato, from the Italian word fumo,

meaning smoke, is the use of mellowed colors and a

blurred outline. Sfumato allows forms to blend subtly

into one another without perceptible transitions.

At the same time that Leonardo was working in

Florence, another artist, Michelangelo di Buonarotti,

was at work on the piece that would establish his

reputation as a sculptor. The city held a competition to

have a statue created from a massive piece of marble

that it had acquired, only to discover that the marble

was flawed. Taking this difficult piece, which had a

large crack in the middle, Michelangelo turned it into

his vision of David (1504). The statue is larger than

life-sized, as it was originally meant to be placed

high on the façade of the cathedral in Florence and

would have been viewed from far below. The beautiful

carving, the smooth texture of the finished marble, and

the striking pose were seen as the very embodiment of

the spirit of Florence as a republic.

Throughout his stormy career, Michelangelo created

a large number of other important sculptures, but it

is a painting that often comes to mind when people

hear his name. In 1505, Pope Julius II commissioned

Michelangelo to design his tomb. Michelangelo began

sculpting great statues such as Moses (c. 1513–15), The

Dying Slave (1513–16), and The Bound Slave (1513–16)

to be included in the Pope’s colossal tomb. However,

in the midst of this commission, the Pope canceled

the project for uncertain reasons. The cancellation of

his work on the Pope’s tomb was one of the greatest

disappointments of Michelangelo’s career, and he was

bitter and hesitant when Pope Julius II gave him another

commission. This time, the artist was asked to decorate

the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. It took Michelangelo

four years, from 1508 to 1512, to cover the seven

hundred square yards of the ceiling, but the result was

an astonishing tour de force. The great masterpiece of

the Sistine Ceiling has received renewed attention in

recent decades, as restorers set about cleaning the great

frescoes. The cleaning removed the collection of oil,

wax, and grime that had accumulated over the centuries,

and the colors have returned to their original brightness.

Not everyone was happy with the results of the cleaning,

however, and a controversy about this restoration, as

well as the restoration of artworks in general, continues

within the art world.

One of the most influential painters of the High

Renaissance was Raphael Sanzio (1483–1520). When

he was a young painter, Raphael was brought to Rome,

where Julius II gave him several commissions. During

this period, Raphael learned much from Michelangelo,

his older rival. Unlike Michelangelo, Raphael was

not a loner, but employed numerous assistants to help

him cover the Pope’s official chambers with large,

sumptuous frescoes, notably the School of Athens (c.

1508–11), an homage to the great Greek philosophers

and scientists. Raphael is considered the most

influential painter of the Madonna. His masterworks,

such as the Sistine Madonna (c. 1513–14), created an

image of the Virgin Mary that has endured in religious

paintings throughout the centuries.

Rome and Florence were not the only locations to

witness an incredible flowering in the arts. Venice,

too, became a center of artistic creativity. Giorgione

(1477/78–1510) is credited with making innovations in

the subject matter of landscapes, as he painted scenes

not taken from the Bible or from classical or allegorical

stories. Prior to Giorgione’s painting The Tempest (c.

1508), artists had generally begun with the figures

that were to be the subject matter of the painting and

then added the background. However, in The Tempest

the landscape became the subject of the painting—the

figures depicted are of lesser importance than the

storm that threatens them.

Titian Vecelli (c. 1488–1576) was one of the most

prolific of the Venetian painters. Titian is well

known for his portraits of his patrons, and he is also

recognized as having been the greatest colorist of

the Renaissance artists. Titian was an innovative

portraitist. He used various elements of setting, such as

a column or a curtain, as the backdrop for his portraits

instead of an atmospheric neutral background, as had

been the custom. The influence of Titian’s use and

arrangement of background elements can be seen in

portraiture up through the twenty-first century.

Tintoretto (1518–94), another great Venetian painter, is

often linked with an artistic style called Mannerism

that grew in popularity in the late sixteenth century.

Mannerist works are characterized by the distortion

of certain elements such as perspective or scale and

are also recognizable by their use of acidic colors and

the twisted positioning of their subjects. Although

Tintoretto used some Mannerist pictorial techniques,

his color schemes differed from those of the Mannerists.

Tintoretto presented his figures from dramatic angles—

it is said that he used small figures as models and

arranged them and rearranged them until he had the

most dramatic effect. He also used dramatic contrasts

of light and dark, called chiaroscuro, to heighten the

emotional impact of his subjects. Tintoretto’s later works

are marked by their spiritual subject matter, and his use

of sharp perspectives and chiaroscuro anticipate the

Baroque era.

One of the most important events impacting the

history of sixteenth-century art was the Reformation.

Protestants criticized the opulence and corruption of

the Catholic Church and called for its purification. For

art, this meant a move away from the richly decorated

churches and religious imagery of the Renaissance.

The Church reacted to the Protestant Reformation by

launching a Counter-Reformation, which emphasized,

even more than before, lavish church decoration and

art of a highly dramatic and emotional nature. One of

the artists most closely associated with the Counter-

Reformation is Dominikos Theotokopoulos, known

as El Greco. El Greco was strongly influenced by

Tintoretto’s paintings, and he worked for a period of

time in Titian’s workshop in Venice. In 1576, El Greco

left Italy for Toledo, Spain. El Greco is one of the most

well known of the Mannerist painters, and his dramatic

use of elongated figures captured the religious fervor

of the Counter-Reformation. The works of both El

Greco and Tintoretto can be seen as transitional works

bridging the end of the Renaissance and the beginning

of the Baroque period.

The Renaissance in Northern Europe

During the fifteenth century, the artworks being

produced in northern Europe were smaller in scale

than those of contemporaneous artists to the south.

However, the work of northern artists displayed a

degree of realistic detail beyond what can be seen in

works of the south, primarily due to their use of new

oil paints. While the Renaissance was occurring in

Italy, much of European art north of the Alps was still

Gothic in style. The influence of classical antiquity

was also much less of a factor in the north, as the

northerners did not share Italy’s cultural connection

with ancient Rome, nor did they have the advantage of

being in close proximity to ancient Roman works as

did their Italian counterparts.

The art of northern Europe in the sixteenth century

demonstrates a far greater awareness of the Italian

Renaissance than that of the fifteenth century. Many

artists traveled to Italy to study the great works of the

Renaissance, and some Italian artists brought these ideas

with them when they traveled to the north. Engravers

copied some of the more notable Italian works, and these

engravings became available throughout Europe, thus

spreading the ideas and styles of the Renaissance. Trade

connections between upper-class German merchants

and merchants in Venice, a center of trade and art,

provided another avenue of influence.

Though the influence of the Italian masters was

notable, not all northern artists embraced the ideals

and innovative techniques of the Renaissance, as many

maintained a more traditional approach. Moreover,

though linear perspective and the colors used farther

south did travel northward, the manner in which they

were used in the northern countries was quite different.

During the fifteenth century and into the early decades

of the sixteenth century, areas of southern Germany

witnessed a flowering of artistic production. Matthias

Grünewald (1475?–1528) and Albrecht Dürer (1471–

1528) are often considered the greatest artists of the

Renaissance in northern Europe. Although only ten of

Grünewald’s works have survived, his influence has

nonetheless been notable. Grünewald is known for his

religious scenes and his depiction of Christ’s crucifixion.

The Isenheim Altarpiece (c. 1510–15), a work consisting

of nine panels mounted on two sets of folding wings, is

considered to be his greatest masterpiece.

Albrecht Dürer is perhaps the most famous artist of

Reformation Germany. Dürer’s early training was

largely influenced by late Gothic works, but as the

ideas of the Italian Renaissance spread northward in

the sixteenth century, Dürer’s work began to reflect

some of these new influences. Dürer aimed to achieve

a style that combined the naturalistic detail favored by

artists of the north with the theoretical ideas developed

by Italian artists. He traveled to Italy, studied the

work of his Italian contemporaries, and brought his

new knowledge back to Germany. Dürer wrote about

theories of art and published many series of woodcuts

and copper engravings, such as The Four Horsemen of

the Apocalypse (c. 1498).

Hans Holbein the Younger (1497–1543) is another

important artist of this era, and he is considered one

of the greatest Renaissance portraitists. Though born

in Germany, Holbein is best known for his work in

England. He became court painter to King Henry VIII

of England, and his portrait of Henry VIII shows not

only his talent for presenting details, but also his ability

to capture the psychological character of his subjects.

Holbein’s works became the model and standard for

English painting up through the nineteenth century.