Confucian Philosophy: Ritual Propriety and Humanity

Core Principles of Ritual Propriety ($li$)

• Definition and Scope: Within the school of Confucianism ($Ru\ Jia$), tradition is fundamentally centered on ritual and the ritualized norms of impeccable conduct associated with specific social roles. These concepts are grouped under the term $li$, often translated as ritual propriety.

• Priority of Attitude over Form: While traditional norms are advocated, the underlying attitude takes precedence over the external form of the ritual. The essential attitude is one of deep reverence, which invests actions and events with profound significance.

• Flexibility and Modification: Justified modifications to ritual forms are permissible but should not be adopted lightly. Traditional norms of ritual propriety serve as reliable markers, similar to how marked paths are necessary for safety when crossing a river. To ignore these tried and marked paths when fording a river is inherently risky (Sunzi 17.11).

• Fundamental Criteria for Practice: Ritual propriety does not consist of absolute rules of what must or must not be done. Instead, it provides criteria for judgment that are often comparative and contextual. Examples include:

  • In the general observance of ritual, it is better to be frugal ($jian$) than to be extravagant.

  • In the specific context of mourning, it is better to feel genuine grief than to be meticulously concerned with formal details.

Interpretations and Traditional Discourse

• Debate on Mourning Rituals: Regarding the Analects 3.4, a modern trend interprets the final sentence to mean it is better to grieve than to be meticulous. However, an alternative reading suggests it is better to grieve than to "take it too lightly." Early commentators, according to James Legge, favored this second interpretation. Ziyu (19.14) suggests the duration of mourning should last exactly as long as one truly feels grief.

• Judgment of Fittingness (Analects 9.3): Ritual norms are given the benefit of the doubt unless a compelling justification for change exists. Confucius demonstrated this via two specific cases:

  • The Hemp Cap: Traditional $li$ calls for a hemp cap, but the contemporary common practice used silk for frugality. In this instance, Confucius followed the common practice.

  • The Act of Bowing: Traditionally, one bows before ascending. Contemporary practice involved bowing only after ascending. Confucius viewed bowing after ascending as arrogant and maintained the traditional practice of bowing before ascending, despite it diverging from common practice.

• Aesthetic vs. Functional Propriety: Ritual and music are not merely about external objects like jade, silk offerings, bells, or drums (17.11). Sunzi (27.11) notes that even beautiful rituals are not true ritual propriety if they are not timely, fitting, respectfully sociable, or cheerfully enjoyed.

• Social Advancements: Country folk are considered those who make advancements in ritual propriety and music first, while the nobility ($junzi$) make advancements later. Confucius indicated a preference for following these "first advancements."

The Psychological Dimension of Sacrifice

• Sacrifice as if Present: The phrase "sacrifice as if present" refers to sacrificing to spirits as if they were physically there (3.12).

• Authenticity and Presence: The value of a ritualistic gesture depends entirely on being psychologically present (attentive and sincere). If one does not personally participate in the sacrifice with the proper attitude, it is as though no sacrifice was made. This "as if" phrasing suggests that the authenticity of the practitioner's attitude matters more than the actual presence of supernatural beings.

Ritual Propriety as Exemplified Behavior

• Contextual Conduct: Descriptions of exemplary behavior show a distinction between settings:

  • Home Village: Displays of extreme courtesy and deference, appearing almost unable to speak.

  • Ancestral Temples and Court: Displays of great eloquence, delivered solemnly.

• Everyday Mindfulness: Respectful conduct extends to the mundane, such as making an offering respectfully even when consuming a simple meal of coarse greens or vegetable soup.

• Confucian vs. Socratic Methodology: The Confucian approach utilizes open and exemplary attitudes to embody virtue, providing behaviors for reflection and emulation. This stands in contrast to the Socratic method, which seeks to refine and close off explicit, truth-based definitions of concepts.

The Relationship Between Ritual Propriety, Music, and Harmony ($he$)

• The Value of Harmony: The primary use of ritual propriety is the production of social harmony (1.1). This was considered the core of the Tao of the ancient kings.

• The Indirect Approach: Harmony should not be pursued directly. Attempting to harmonize without the guidance of $li$ is ineffective. Like happiness (which is a natural byproduct of helping others rather than an end in itself found through shopping or entertainment), harmony is a natural byproduct of the exemplary performance of ritual propriety.

• Harmony vs. Sameness ($tong$): Exemplary persons harmonize ($he$) but do not homogenize or seek sameness ($tong$). Petty persons do the opposite (13.23).

• The Soup and Lute Analogies: As recorded in the Zhuo Zhuan (Book 10, Duke Zhao, Year 20):

  • The Soup Analogy: Harmony is like a soup where various ingredients (water, fire, vinegar, pickles, salt, plums) are balanced by a chef. Adding water to water does not create flavor; it only creates "sameness."

  • The Lute Analogy: A lute playing only one note is uninteresting. Harmony requires the coordination of different elements, just as music requires different notes.

Specific Effects and Constraints of Ritual Propriety

• Refining Character (Analects 8.2): Virtue without the structure of $li$ can become detrimental:

  • Respect ($gong$) without $li$ becomes exhaustion.

  • Caution without $li$ becomes timidity.

  • Bravery without $li$ becomes chaos.

  • Uprightness without $li$ becomes crookedness.

• Categorization of Enjoyments (16.5):

  • Beneficial Enjoyments: Coordinating with ritual propriety and music; speaking of the moral efficacy of others; having many worthy friends.

  • Harmful Enjoyments: Enjoyment of pomposity; escapism; and idleness.

• The Six Arts: The structured arts that provide respite for the virtuous include the rites, music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and mathematics.

Ritual Propriety and the Realization of Humanity ($ren$)

• Definitions of $ren$: The term $ren$ (humanity) is used in diverse ways depending on the audience. It is often linked to being in the right environment, much like a craftsperson must sharpen their tools to excel. Serving worthy ministers and befriending officials who exhibit $ren$ provides a "sharpening stone" effect for one's character.

• The Five Traits of $ren$ (17.6):

  1. Respect: Prevents one from being mistreated.

  2. Magnanimity: Wins the masses to one's side.

  3. Trustworthiness ($xin$): Ensures people will rely on you.

  4. Diligence: Leads to the achievement of results.

  5. Kindness: Suffices for directing others.

• Self-Restraint and Returning to $li$: The path to becoming $ren$ involves practicing self-restraint and repeatedly returning to ritual propriety (12.1). This includes specific behavioral constraints:

  • Do not look, listen, speak, or move in a way that is not $li$.

  • This implies a constant, painstaking attentiveness to normative considerations ($yi$).

• Public vs. Private Conduct: Acting with $ren$ means treating the public as if receiving important guests and putting people to work as if performing a great sacrificial ritual (12.2). This involves the "Silver Rule": do not press on others what you yourself do not desire. This empathetic consideration ($shu$) acts as the compass for $ren$.

Questions & Discussion

• Inquiry from Lin Fang: Lin Fang asked about the root ($Li\ Ti$) of ritual propriety. The response emphasized that it is better to be frugal than extravagant and better to grieve than to be meticulous.

• Inquiry from Yuan Xian: Yuan Xian asked about shame. The response stated it is shameful to be concerned only with salary regardless of whether the Tao prevails in the state. When asked if refraining from being overbearing, boasting, resentful, and covetous constitutes $ren$, the response was that it is difficult to achieve, but not necessarily humanity in its full sense.

• Inquiry from Zizhong: Zizhong asked about the specific traits of $ren$, leading to the list of five traits: respect, magnanimity, trustworthiness, diligence, and kindness.

• Inquiry from Yan Hui: Yan Hui asked about the details of becoming $ren$, which led to the instruction to remain within the bounds of $li$ in all senses (looking, listening, speaking, and moving).

• Inquiry from Zhong Gong: Zhong Gong's inquiry about $ren$ resulted in the advice to treat all social interactions with the solemnity of high ritual and to practice empathetic consideration.

• Skepticism from Zigong's Contemporary: A questioner asked Zigong why Confucius was considered superior, noting Zigong’s own deference. Zigong responded that a wise person is judged by a single remark and compared Confucius' superiority to the impossibility of ascending a ladder into the heavens ($Tian$). Zigong noted that under Confucius' guidance, a state or clan would stand, follow, and be harmonious.