Political Reform in the Progressive Era

As we have already seen, there were tentative steps to end national government corruption starting in the late 1870s. Because many progressive reforms involved major initiatives, organizations soon realized that to reform society they had to reform governments as well.

The first attempt to reform the government was the push for the Secret Ballot. Before the 1880s many states required voters to use printed ballots with the name of the candidate written on the ticket where everyone could see the name. This system openly lent itself to voter suppression and persuasion, sometimes in violent threats. The Secret Ballot, a system we still use today, allowed the voter to secretly vote for whomever they deemed best. This went a long way to encouraging a free and safe voting process.

Many Progressive next turned their attention to local reforms. Political Machines, generally headed by machine bosses, were quasi-political organizations that recruited supporters, generally members of the poor working classes including immigrants, by giving aid (sometimes legal support, or providing cheap housing or employment) or sometimes threatening violence. These supporters in turn would support (read vote) whomever the boss told them to. In return for providing a large number of “supportive” voters, Machine Bosses would receive rewards or kickbacks. This system was corrupt by its very nature. However, progressives did make some end roads. In 1911 there was a fire at the Triangle Shirtwaist Company resulting in the death of 146 garment workers. It soon came to light that before the fire, management had locked the emergency exit. After three years of careful examination, the Tammany Hall Democrats (one of the largest Political Machines in the US) supported new labor laws that imposed strict regulations on factory owners and even set up an enforcement system.

Next reformers turned to city reform where they developed two different plans:

Commission Plan- Instead of having a Mayor, the Commission Plan gave city management to a board of elected administrative heads of city departments such as sanitation, police, and utilities. The belief was that a group of men were less corruptible than one individual. This plan only worked in one place- Galveston, Texas in 1900.
City Manager Plan- Instead of giving entire power to a local official, the City Manager Plan called for hiring an outside professional administrator who would run the city government according to the policies set by an elected council and mayor.

Some reformers soon turned to bigger political fish. To reform the state governments they called for the following:

Direct Primary- The Direct Primary allowed the public to vote on candidates for public office instead of candidates simply being put in office by machine bosses and other powerful interest groups.
Initiatives- Initiatives allowed the public, through signed petitions, to put measures directly on the ballot without going through state legislatures.
Referendums- allowed the public to vote directly on legislative actions thus enacting laws without waiting on government officials.
Recalls- Gave voters the right to remove public officials through a special election.

While the progressives were trying to reform small government, the National Government also began to very very tentatively embrace further reforms and regulations on a growing number of areas not necessarily limited to politics themselves. Soon after his second inauguration, McKinley was assassinated by Leon Czolgosz on September 6^th, 1901. He died on September 14^th. As a result, Teddy Roosevelt became the 26^th President of the United States. Teddy is often remembered as the first Presidential Reformer- the big trust buster! This is incorrect but still, he should receive some credit for being the first president to try and regulate big business. While Roosevelt did not want to break up trusts, he did push for the power to investigate and publish results that he hoped would help regulate big businesses' excesses including:

Starting in 1902, he encouraged the Justice Department to invoke the Sherman Antitrust Act and encouraged 40 additional antitrust suits.
In 1904 he encouraged Congress to break up the railroad combinations.

Not only did he support business regulation, but he also was the first president to support limited labor regulation including:

In 1902, the United Mine Workers went on strike. When the owners of the Mine refused to negotiate with the Union. Roosevelt invited both parties to come to DC to accept impartial federal arbitration. In the end, both sides came to a compromise which Teddy referred to as a Square Deal!
In 1908 Roosevelt proposed more stringent working reforms including an 8-hour workday and broader workman's comp. And regulation of the stock market.

Roosevelt’s other regulations include:

Hepburn Rail Road Regulation Act - This Act sought to reinforce the defunct Interstate Commerce Act and restored some regulatory oversight of the railroads to the Government.
Pure Food and Drug Act- This Act put restrictions on prepared foods and patent medicines and forbade the sale or transportation of misbranded or harmful products.
Meat Inspection Act- This Act, in part was a reaction to Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle and required sanitation standards and inspections in all meat processing plants.

One of Roosevelt’s most lasting contributions to America was his preservation of its natural wonders and wildlife. He was the first president to challenge the idea that the US had inexhaustible resources. At this time there were two distinct Environmental movements including:

Conservation Movement- This movement promoted policies to protect land for carefully managed development.
Naturalist Movements- This movement, championed by John Muir, was committed to protecting the natural beauty of the land and animals from all human intrusion.

Roosevelt was more of a Conservationist at heart, which is reflected in his policies. In 1902 he signed the National Reclamation Act which provided funds for the construction of dams, reservoirs, and canals. He also worked with Gifford Pinchot to create the Forestry Department.

William H. Taft was handpicked by Roosevelt to be his replacement. Most reformers felt Taft was a good choice too, however, that was not the case. Taft was not the leader Roosevelt was and soon the Republican Party was divided once more. During the first months of his presidency, Taft called Congress to lower the protective tariff. Big Business was angered and Taft was unable to combat their political power. The result was the Payne-Aldrich Tariff that did nothing. That was the highlight of Taft's presidency. It all went downhill from there. Angered by Taft’s failures, Roosevelt, who had long denied his return to politics, stepped to the forefront again championing his new political ideology - New Nationalism. Teddy argued that social justice was possible but only through a strong government, whose leader acted as the steward of the public welfare!

Roosevelt eventually decided to run for a third term (remember at this time there were no presidential term limits) but the Republican nomination was divided between Taft and Teddy. When it appeared that the GOP was going to side with Taft, Roosevelt walked out of the convention to form his own Progressive Party which was nicknamed the Bull Moose Party. Due to Taft's unpopularity, the Election of 1912 would be between Roosevelt who named his platform New Nationalism, and the new Democratic up-and-comer- Woodrow Wilson who championed his political platform known as New Freedom.

Roosevelt's New Nationalism focused on the idea that strong Government authority could promote social justice by enforcing regulations. This would include regulating such areas as worker's compensation, child labor, and creating a stronger Bureau of Corporations and a Federal Trade Commission to regulate rates. Wilson's New Freedom focused on the idea that instead of regulating monopolies you should simply get rid of them. This included strong and enforced anti-trust laws, lowering the tariffs, and the dissolution of Wall Street!

Wilson handily won! Unlike his predecessors, he was a do-something president who got stuff done. He was aided by a loyal cabinet that he used effectively. He also had the support of a Democratic-held House and Senate.

Wilson’s reforms included:

Underwood Simmons Tariff – This Act lowered the tariff for the first time since the Civil War. It was hoped that the tariff would be low enough to allow for real economic competition and hopefully help bust the trusts. This tariff was offset by the first graduated income tax.
Federal Reserve Act- Created 12 regional banks which were owned and controlled by individual banks in their districts. The Federal Reserve banks would issue Federal Reserve Notes to member banks. All national banks had to become members and state banks could join if they wanted to. Member banks were required to transfer 6% of all of their capital to the Federal Reserve Bank. The creation of these banks allowed for the quick and fast transfer of cash to points of the economy that were most in need. This act was meant to be a safety net to help prevent future economic depressions.
Federal Trade Commission- This commission assumed new powers to define “unfair trade practices” and to issue “cease and desist” orders when they found evidence of unfair monopolies.
Keating Owen Act- This act prohibited the shipment of goods produced by underage children across state lines.
Smith-Lever Act- This act offered matching federal grants to support agricultural extension education.