HSC Exam 2 Study Guide

Diabetes Mellitus (DM)

Mechanisms of Endocrine System

  • Insufficient Insulin:

    • Ketones are excreted as a by-product of fat metabolism, often resulting from fasting or dieting.

    • Ketones can accumulate in diabetics, leading to potential ketosis (toxic level) which may be life-threatening.

Types of Diabetes Mellitus (DM)

  1. Type 1 Diabetes (Insulin Dependent, IDDM):

    • Autoimmune disease leading to insulin deficiency; requires injections.

    • Most commonly diagnosed in youth; represents 5-10% of diabetic population.

    • Symptoms include:

      • Polyphagia (excessive hunger)

      • Weight loss

      • Polydipsia (excessive thirst)

      • Polyuria (frequent urination)

      • Fatigue

  2. Type 2 Diabetes (Non-Insulin Dependent, NIDDM):

    • Adult-onset, primarily characterized by insulin resistance; 90-95% of diabetic population.

    • Symptoms include:

      • Polydipsia/Polyuria

      • Unusual weight fluctuations

      • Headaches and fatigue

      • Often milder than Type 1.

    • Risk factor: obesity.

  3. Gestational Diabetes:

    • Affects pregnant women late in pregnancy (occurs in 5-7% of pregnancies).

    • Screening is often done during pregnancy.

  4. Prediabetes:

    • Higher-than-normal blood glucose levels do not yet meet the diabetes diagnosis criteria (impaired glucose tolerance).

    • Fasting blood sugar normal is under 100 mg/dL; prediabetes ranged 140-200 mg/dL.

Risk Factors for DM

  • Obesity

  • Physical inactivity

  • Genetic factors

Symptoms of DM

  • Increased thirst

  • Frequent urination

  • Presence of ketones in urine

  • Fatigue

  • Mood changes

  • Blurry vision

  • Slow-healing sores

  • Increased infections

Monitoring and Testing

  • Fasting Blood Glucose:

    • Normal: 70-100 mg/dL; requires NPO for 8 hours prior.

  • Hemoglobin A1c Test:

    • Measures average blood sugar levels over the past 2-3 months.

  • Oral Glucose Tolerance Test:

    • Involves fasting and subsequent sugary drink consumption.

  • Urinalysis:

    • Tests for glycosuria; not definitive for diagnosis.

Role of Insulin in Treatment Management

  • Definition: Insulin enables glucose entry into cells, produced by beta cells in the pancreas.

  • Insulin Types:

    • Rapid-acting, short-acting, intermediate-acting, or long-acting.

Treatment and Management Strategies

  • For Hyperglycemia:

    • Insulin injections, IV fluids, ID bracelet, trained service dogs.

  • For Hypoglycemia:

    • Blood glucose checks following the 15-15 rule (15g carbs, retest after 15 minutes).

    • In severe cases, glucagon or IV glucose administration is necessary.

  • Lifestyle Changes:

    • Weight control, healthy nutrition, exercise, and potentially oral medications.

Differentiating Between Hyperglycemia and Hypoglycemia

Hyperglycemia

Hypoglycemia

High blood glucose due to insufficient insulin

Low blood sugar (less than 70 mg/dL)

Frequent urination

Shakiness

Increased thirst

Sweating, clamminess

Severe cases may lead to diabetic coma

Severe cases may lead to insulin shock

Complications of Diabetes

  • Potential issues affecting various systems:

    • Blindness, end-stage renal disease (ESRD), heart disease, peripheral neuropathy, and erectile dysfunction.

Cancer Terminology

  • Neoplasm: Abnormal mass of tissue, may be benign or malignant.

  • Metastasis: Spread of cancer from the primary site.

  • Carcinoma, Benign & Malignant tumors: Definitions and distinctions.

  • Recurrent and Refractory Cancer: Definitions of cancer that returns after treatment or does not respond to treatments.

Causes of Cancer

  • Factors include radiation, hereditary disposition, environmental carcinogens, diet, obesity, UV rays, immune suppression, and tobacco exposure.

Disparities in Cancer Rates

  • Notable differences in death rates among ethnic groups (e.g. higher rates in African American males for prostate cancer).

Cancer Screening and Staging

  • Screening Methods:

    • Breast (self-exams, mammograms), cervical (PAP tests), colon (colonoscopy post-50), prostate (PSA blood tests), skin (observational).

  • Staging Types: Determining extent of cancer; in situ, localized, regional, distant.

  • TNM Classification: Evaluates tumor size, node involvement, and metastasis.

Common Signs and Symptoms of Cancers

  • Symptoms vary by cancer type; e.g., colon cancer may present with blood in stool.

Treatment Options for Various Cancers

  • Common Types of Treatment:

    • Surgery, chemotherapy, radiation, targeted therapy.

  • Specific symptoms and risk factors are linked to treatment effectiveness.

Cardiovascular Disease

Overview of the Heart and Vascular System

  • Key structures and functions related to the cardiovascular system.

Risk Factors for Heart Disease

  • Prolonged hypertension, arrhythmias, smoking, and atherosclerosis among others.

Key Terms Related to Heart Conditions

  • Atherosclerosis and Arteriosclerosis.

  • Angina and Arrhythmia: Definitions and differences.

Differences Between Cardiac Arrest and Myocardial Infarction

  • Myocardial Infarction: Prolonged chest pain signaling a heart attack.

  • Cardiac Arrest: Sudden cessation of heart function, potentially fatal without immediate intervention (e.g., CPR).

CPR and Life-Saving Techniques

  • Emphasis on CPR changes (30 compressions followed by 2 breaths) and usage of defibrillators.

Cardiac Assessment Techniques

  • Utilization of EKG, Holter monitor, METS table, stress tests, and cardiac catheterizations to assess heart health.

Surgical and Minimally Invasive Heart Interventions

  • Procedures like angioplasty, CABG (Coronary Artery Bypass Graft), heart transplantation, and valve repair/replacement.

Lifestyle Modifications for Heart Health

  • Recommendations for managing stress and maintaining a healthy lifestyle to prevent heart disease.

Stroke: Signs, Risk Factors, and Prevention

Signs and Symptoms of Stroke

  • Symptoms:

    • Weakness, balance loss, sensory loss, vision issues, cognitive problems.

Recognizing Stroke Quickly (FAST)

  • FAST: Face drooping, Arm weakness, Speech difficulty, Time to call emergency services.

Types of Stroke

  • Ischemic: Thrombus formation or embolus traveling to the brain.

  • Hemorrhagic: Includes aneurysms and vascular malformations.

Common Deficits Post-Stroke

  • Potential impacts include sensory, motor, emotional issues, and cognitive difficulties.

Rehabilitation and Management of Stroke

  • Includes physical therapy, medications, lifestyle adjustments, and various therapies.

Risk Factors and Prevention Strategies for Stroke

  • Controllable factors include managing blood pressure, cholesterol, and lifestyle choices.